HEKOCET -10

Indications

• Dry eye conditions
• Tear deficiency
• Keratoconjunctivitis sicca

Dosage

Children: Apply as required, typically in the form of eye drops.

Adults: Apply as required, typically in the form of eye drops.

Mechanism of action

Hypromellose acts by forming a viscous gel upon contact with the ocular surface, which helps to retain moisture and protect against irritants. This gel-like property enhances the stability of the tear film and reduces evaporation, thereby alleviating symptoms associated with dry eye conditions.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of hypromellose are primarily related to its ability to mimic natural tears, providing lubrication to the ocular surface. This lubrication reduces friction during blinking and maintains corneal hydration, which is critical for ocular comfort and health. Its high viscosity also contributes to prolonged retention time on the eye surface.

Pharmacokinetics

Hypromellose is administered topically as eye drops and is not significantly absorbed systemically. The retention time of hypromellose on the ocular surface is enhanced due to its viscosity, allowing for extended relief of dry eye symptoms. The elimination of hypromellose occurs primarily through drainage from the eye and dilution by the natural tear fluid.

Adverse effects

• Temporary visual disturbance
• Eye irritation

Precautions

• Should not be used during contact lens wear
• Use with caution in patients with known hypersensitivity to any component of the formulation

Pregnancy

Hypromellose is generally considered safe for use during pregnancy. However, it should be used only if clearly needed and after consulting a healthcare provider.

Breast-feeding

Hypromellose is unlikely to affect breastfed infants when used as directed, but consultation with a healthcare provider is advisable.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Once opened, use within a specified period as indicated on the packaging.

Formulations

• {'name': 'Teardew', 'concentration': '0.3%', 'form': 'eye drops', 'volume': '10 ml'}
• {'name': 'Xailin Hydrate', 'concentration': '0.3%', 'form': 'eye drops', 'volume': '10 ml'}
• {'name': 'AacuLose', 'concentration': '0.3%', 'form': 'eye drops', 'volume': '10 ml'}
• {'name': 'Artelac', 'concentration': '0.32%', 'form': 'eye drops', 'volume': '10 ml'}
• {'name': 'Lacrilube', 'concentration': '2 mg/g', 'form': 'eye ointment', 'volume': '3.5 g'}
• {'name': 'Celluvisc', 'concentration': '1%', 'form': 'eye drops', 'volume': '0.4 ml unit dose'}

Indications

• Skin disinfection
• Preparation of skin before injections
• Cleansing minor wounds

Dosage

Children: Apply to the skin as required; consult product literature for specific guidance.

Adults: Apply to the skin as required for disinfection.

Mechanism of action

Alcohol exerts its antiseptic effect by denaturing proteins, disrupting cell membranes, and dehydrating microbial cells, leading to cell lysis and death.

Pharmacodynamics

Alcohol has broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, effective against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Its efficacy is influenced by concentration, with higher concentrations generally being more effective.

Pharmacokinetics

Alcohol is rapidly absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes. It is metabolized primarily in the liver, with a half-life that varies based on the individual's metabolic rate and the amount consumed.

Contra-indications

• Concomitant use with lithium
• Regular use in neonates
• Patients with severe burns when diathermy has been preceded by application of alcoholic skin disinfectants

Adverse effects

• Eye erythema
• Punctate keratitis
• Cytotoxicity
• Eye discolouration

Interactions

• Increases risk of visual disturbances with antiepileptics
• Increases concentration with methylphenidate
• Increases risk of facial flushing and skin irritation with topical pimecrolimus
• Increases concentration with retinoids
• Increases concentration with acitretin
• Increases risk of facial flushing and skin irritation with topical tacrolimus
• Decreases antidiuretic effect with vasopressin

Precautions

• Avoid regular application to inflamed or broken skin or mucosa
• Avoid broken skin
• Flammable

Pregnancy

Sufficient iodine may be absorbed to affect the fetal thyroid in the second and third trimester.

Breast-feeding

Avoid regular or excessive use.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from heat and direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Betadine 2.5% dry powder spray
• Industrial methylated spirit
• Povidone-Iodine 25 mg per 1 gram

Indications

• Symptomatic relief of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (hay fever)
• Chronic idiopathic urticaria (hives)

Dosage

Children: For children aged 6 to 12 years, the typical dose is 5 mg once daily for children weighing less than 30 kg, and 10 mg once daily for those weighing 30 kg or more. For children aged 2 to 5 years, 2.5 mg once daily is recommended

Adults: The usual adult dose is 10 mg once daily. In some cases, this can be adjusted based on individual response and tolerability.

Mechanism of action

Cetirizine selectively inhibits the H1 receptor, preventing the action of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. By blocking these receptors, cetirizine reduces symptoms associated with allergic responses, including itching, sneezing, and runny nose. It also exhibits mild anticholinergic properties, which contribute to its effectiveness in alleviating symptoms.

Pharmacodynamics

Cetirizine has a faster onset of action compared to older antihistamines, providing relief from allergy symptoms within 1 hour of administration. Its effects can last for up to 24 hours, allowing for once-daily dosing. The drug is generally well-tolerated, with sedation being less common than with first-generation antihistamines due to its reduced penetration across the blood-brain barrier.

Pharmacokinetics

Cetirizine is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1-2 hours. It is approximately 93% bound to plasma proteins. The elimination half-life is about 8 hours in healthy adults, but may be prolonged in individuals with renal impairment. Cetirizine is primarily excreted unchanged in the urine, and dose adjustments may be necessary for patients with significant renal dysfunction.

Contra-indications

• Acute porphyrias
• Severe renal impairment

Adverse effects

• Drowsiness
• Headache
• Anxiety
• Increased appetite
• Asthenia
• Diarrhoea
• Dry mouth
• Dyspnoea
• Fever
• Gastritis
• Gastrointestinal discomfort
• Insomnia
• Nasal complaints
• Nausea
• Oral herpes

Interactions

• Other antihistamines (non-sedating)

Precautions

• Drowsiness may occur and affect performance of skilled tasks, such as cycling or driving
• Alcohol should be avoided

Pregnancy

Most manufacturers of antihistamines advise avoiding their use during pregnancy; however, there is no evidence of teratogenicity.

Breast-feeding

Most antihistamines are present in breast milk in varying amounts; although not known to be harmful, most manufacturers advise avoiding their use in mothers who are breast-feeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light.

Formulations

• Cetirizine hydrochloride 10 mg tablets
• Cetirizine hydrochloride 10 mg oral solution

Indications

• Methemoglobinemia
• Urinary tract infections
• Surgical marking
• Treatment of certain types of cyanide poisoning

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate pediatric dosing information.

Adults: Refer to the relevant clinical guidelines or the BNF for specific dosing recommendations.

Mechanism of action

Methylene blue acts as a reducing agent, converting methemoglobin back to its functional form, hemoglobin. This is primarily achieved through its action as an electron donor, facilitating the reduction of ferric iron (Fe3+) in hemoglobin to ferrous iron (Fe2+), thereby restoring its oxygen-carrying capacity. It also exhibits antimicrobial properties through its ability to generate reactive oxygen species when exposed to light, which can inhibit bacterial growth.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of methylene blue involve its role in enhancing oxygen delivery in patients suffering from methemoglobinemia. By converting methemoglobin back to hemoglobin, it effectively increases the amount of hemoglobin available for oxygen transport. The drug also shows effects on the vascular system, where it can induce vasodilation and influence blood pressure.

Pharmacokinetics

Methylene blue is rapidly absorbed after intravenous administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1 to 3 hours. It is extensively distributed in body tissues and fluids, including the liver, kidneys, and lungs. The drug undergoes hepatic metabolism, primarily through the cytochrome P450 system, and is excreted mainly through urine. The half-life ranges from 5 to 24 hours, depending on the dosage and individual patient factors.

Pregnancy

Consult healthcare provider before use, as safety in pregnancy is not established.

Breast-feeding

Consult healthcare provider before use, as safety during breastfeeding is not established.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Surgical staining
• Diagnostic staining in histology
• Visualization of structures in ophthalmic procedures

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific guidelines for application based on the procedure and context. Dosage is typically determined by the healthcare provider depending on the clinical scenario.

Adults: Refer to specific guidelines for application based on the procedure and context. Dosage is typically determined by the healthcare provider depending on the clinical scenario.

Mechanism of action

Brilliant Blue FCF exerts its effects by binding to proteins and tissues, allowing for clear visualization during surgical procedures. The dye absorbs light at specific wavelengths, making it useful for highlighting structures in biological tissues.

Pharmacodynamics

Brilliant Blue FCF has minimal systemic absorption when used as a local stain, leading to localized effects primarily at the site of application. Its primary role is as a visual aid rather than having therapeutic effects on biological processes.

Pharmacokinetics

When applied topically, Brilliant Blue FCF is minimally absorbed systemically. The dye is excreted primarily unchanged in the urine. Due to its low bioavailability and rapid clearance, systemic toxicity is rare, making it safe for local use in surgical and diagnostic settings.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

It is not known whether this drug is excreted in human milk. Caution should be exercised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Constipation
• Dietary fiber supplementation
• Irritable bowel syndrome
• Diverticular disease
• Weight management

Dosage

Children: Refer to appropriate guidelines for specific dosage; generally taken with adequate fluid intake.

Adults: Refer to appropriate guidelines for specific dosage; generally taken with adequate fluid intake.

Mechanism of action

Cellulose acts primarily as a bulk-forming laxative. It absorbs water in the intestines, which increases stool bulk and stimulates peristalsis, thus facilitating bowel movements. Additionally, cellulose is not digestible by human enzymes, leading to fermentation by gut bacteria, which may enhance gut health and alter gut microbiota composition.

Pharmacodynamics

Cellulose increases stool weight and frequency of bowel movements. It works by retaining water in the intestines, leading to softer stools and improved passage through the gastrointestinal tract. The bulking effect of cellulose can help alleviate constipation and promote overall digestive health. It may also play a role in cholesterol reduction and glycemic control through its effects on digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Pharmacokinetics

Cellulose is not absorbed into the bloodstream due to its indigestible nature. Instead, it passes through the gastrointestinal tract, where it adds bulk to the stool. Its fermentation by colonic bacteria produces short-chain fatty acids, which may have beneficial effects on colon health. The onset of action for cellulose as a laxative can vary but is generally within 24 to 72 hours after ingestion.

Adverse effects

• Bloating
• Flatulence
• Diarrhea
• Abdominal discomfort

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with a history of gastrointestinal disorders.
• Monitor for potential allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

Pregnancy

Cellulose is generally considered safe during pregnancy as it is a non-toxic, indigestible fiber.

Breast-feeding

Cellulose is also considered safe during breastfeeding; it is excreted in breast milk in negligible amounts.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Powder
• Capsules
• Tablets
• Granules

Indications

• Allergic rhinitis (seasonal and perennial)
• Chronic idiopathic urticaria
• Allergic asthma
• Physical urticaria
• Atopic dermatitis

Dosage

Children: For children aged 6 to 12 years, the usual dose is 5 mg twice daily or 10 mg once daily. For children aged 2 to 5 years, the usual dose is 2.5 mg twice daily or 5 mg once daily

Adults: The usual adult dose is 10 mg once daily, which can be taken with or without food.

Mechanism of action

Cetirizine selectively inhibits peripheral H1 receptors, leading to a reduction in the effects of histamine, a chemical responsible for allergic symptoms. The drug demonstrates negligible anticholinergic and antiserotonergic activity. It has shown to have minimal penetration into the central nervous system, thereby reducing the likelihood of sedation, a common side effect associated with antihistamines.

Pharmacodynamics

Cetirizine exhibits antihistaminic and anti-inflammatory effects that are beneficial in managing allergic conditions. It effectively alleviates symptoms of chronic idiopathic urticaria and both perennial and seasonal allergic rhinitis. Clinical trials have established its efficacy in improving symptoms of allergic respiratory diseases, and it significantly inhibits wheal and flare responses within 20 minutes of administration, with effects lasting for up to 24 hours.

Pharmacokinetics

Cetirizine is well absorbed after oral administration, with peak plasma concentrations typically occurring within 1 hour. It has a long half-life, allowing for once-daily dosing. The drug is primarily eliminated via the kidneys, with a portion being excreted unchanged. Its pharmacokinetic profile demonstrates low potential for significant central nervous system penetration, contributing to its reduced sedation compared to first-generation antihistamines.

Adverse effects

• dry mouth
• drowsiness
• fatigue
• headache
• nausea
• dizziness

Precautions

• Caution in patients with renal impairment
• Caution when driving or operating machinery due to potential drowsiness

Pregnancy

Cetirizine should be used in pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus. Consult relevant guidelines.

Breast-feeding

Cetirizine is excreted in breast milk. Caution is advised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store below 25°C. Protect from light and moisture. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• tablets
• oral solution
• chewable tablets

Indications

• Hypovolemic shock
• Severe burns
• Postoperative fluid replacement
• Sepsis
• Trauma management

Dosage

Children: Refer to established guidelines for specific dosing, as it varies based on the type of colloidal solution used and the clinical condition being treated.

Adults: Refer to established guidelines for specific dosing, as it varies based on the type of colloidal solution used and the clinical condition being treated.

Mechanism of action

Colloidal solutions work by maintaining oncotic pressure in the blood, thus helping to retain fluid within the vascular system. This is primarily due to the large molecular weight of the colloidal particles, which cannot easily pass through capillary walls. The presence of colloids in the blood helps to draw water into the circulation, increasing blood volume and improving tissue perfusion.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of colloidal solutions are centered on their ability to exert osmotic pressure, which helps maintain blood volume and pressure. This effect is particularly important in conditions such as hypovolemia and shock, where fluid replacement is necessary to restore hemodynamic stability. The efficacy of colloidal solutions can vary depending on the type of colloid used, as well as the underlying clinical condition being treated.

Pharmacokinetics

Colloidal solutions are typically administered intravenously and their pharmacokinetics can vary based on the specific formulation. Generally, colloids are distributed throughout the vascular compartment and have a longer duration of action compared to crystalloids, as they remain in circulation longer. The elimination of colloids is primarily through the reticuloendothelial system, where they are metabolized or eliminated by the liver and spleen. Factors such as particle size and composition can influence their distribution and clearance.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions
• Injection site reactions
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Headache
• Fever

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with known allergies to any component of the formulation
• Monitor for signs of hypersensitivity during administration
• Consider volume overload in patients with cardiac or renal impairment

Pregnancy

The safety of colloidal solutions during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

It is not known whether colloidal solutions are excreted in human milk. Caution should be exercised when administering to breastfeeding mothers.

Storage

Store at room temperature, protect from light, and do not freeze. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Colloidal silver
• Colloidal gold
• Colloidal iron
• Other metal colloids

Indications

• Used as an excipient in solid dosage forms
• Facilitates drug disintegration and dissolution

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific product formulation guidelines as crospovidone is used as an excipient and does not have a direct dosage.

Adults: Refer to specific product formulation guidelines as crospovidone is used as an excipient and does not have a direct dosage.

Mechanism of action

Crospovidone acts by rapidly absorbing water and swelling upon contact with moisture. This action leads to the disintegration of solid dosage forms, thus increasing the surface area of the active ingredients and promoting their dissolution and subsequent absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It does not affect the pH of the formulation, ensuring that the active ingredients remain stable.

Pharmacodynamics

Crospovidone exhibits properties that enhance the bioavailability of active ingredients in pharmaceutical formulations. Its ability to rapidly disintegrate tablets and capsules leads to quicker release and absorption of the drug into systemic circulation. As a disintegrant, it aids in the effective delivery of drugs that may otherwise be poorly soluble.

Pharmacokinetics

Crospovidone itself is not absorbed systemically when administered orally. It remains in the gastrointestinal tract, where it performs its function as a disintegrant. The pharmacokinetic profile of drugs formulated with crospovidone may be influenced by the enhanced dissolution and absorption rates provided by this excipient.

Pregnancy

Crospovidone is considered to have low toxicity and is generally regarded as safe for use during pregnancy, but specific studies are limited.

Breast-feeding

There is insufficient data on the excretion of crospovidone in human milk, but it is deemed safe for use during breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light and moisture, in tightly closed containers.

Formulations

• Powder
• Tablets

Indications

• Monitoring respiratory function
• Assessment of metabolic status
• Management of respiratory acidosis
• Management of respiratory alkalosis

Dosage

Children: Dosing for interventions related to carbon dioxide levels in pediatric patients should be guided by clinical protocols and the BNF for Children.

Adults: Dosing for interventions related to carbon dioxide levels is typically based on clinical assessment and individual patient needs. Refer to clinical guidelines for specific scenarios.

Mechanism of action

Carbon dioxide acts primarily as a signaling molecule in the body, influencing respiratory drive and blood pH. It is produced during cellular respiration and is a critical component of the bicarbonate buffering system, which helps maintain acid-base homeostasis. Elevated levels of CO2 in the blood stimulate ventilation in the lungs, increasing the rate of gas exchange and facilitating the removal of excess CO2.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of dioxides, particularly carbon dioxide, are closely related to its concentration in the blood. As CO2 levels increase, it leads to respiratory acidosis, which can stimulate the respiratory centers in the brain to increase ventilation. Conversely, low levels of CO2 can cause respiratory alkalosis, potentially leading to decreased respiratory drive. CO2 also plays a role in vasodilation and can affect blood flow and pressure through its influence on smooth muscle tone.

Pharmacokinetics

Carbon dioxide is produced endogenously during metabolic processes and is transported in the bloodstream primarily in three forms: dissolved in plasma, as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), and bound to hemoglobin. The half-life of CO2 in the bloodstream is very short due to its rapid exchange with alveolar gas in the lungs. The elimination of CO2 occurs through exhalation, making it a dynamic component of respiratory physiology.

Pregnancy

Data on the effects of dioxide during pregnancy are limited. Caution is advised due to potential risks associated with exposure.

Breast-feeding

Limited data are available regarding the excretion of dioxide in human milk. Caution is recommended.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture.

Dosage

Children: Refer to the specific drug's prescribing guidelines for paediatric dosing.

Adults: Refer to the specific drug's prescribing guidelines for adult dosing.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action for a 'dummy' drug would depend on the specific medication it refers to. In pharmacology, a drug's mechanism of action describes how it produces its effects in the body, typically through interaction with biological targets such as receptors, enzymes, or ion channels.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics involves understanding the relationship between drug concentration and effect. For a dummy drug, this will vary widely based on its actual identity, including its efficacy, potency, and therapeutic index.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics describes how the body absorbs, distributes, metabolizes, and excretes a drug. For a placeholder like 'dummy', these parameters would differ significantly based on the actual drug being represented.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Excretion in breast milk is unknown. Caution should be exercised when administered to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and heat. Keep out of reach of children.

Mechanism of action

Ethylene interferes with the activities of plant hormones causing growth retardation. It modulates the expression of genes involved in growth regulation and interacts with other plant hormones to coordinate developmental processes.

Pharmacodynamics

Ethylene acts as a plant growth regulator. It affects cellular processes such as cell division, elongation, and differentiation. The balance between ethylene and other hormones such as auxins and gibberellins is crucial for normal plant development. Ethylene promotes senescence and abscission, thereby influencing the timing of flowering and fruiting.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of ethylene in plants involves its biosynthesis, signaling, and degradation pathways. Ethylene is synthesized from methionine and is rapidly produced in response to various stimuli. Its signaling pathway is complex, involving receptors that mediate the response to ethylene, leading to changes in gene expression.

Pregnancy

Ethylene is classified as a non-toxic gas at low concentrations. However, exposure to high concentrations may pose risks. It is best to avoid exposure during pregnancy.

Breast-feeding

Ethylene is unlikely to pose a risk during breastfeeding due to its rapid metabolism and low toxicity at normal exposure levels.

Storage

Store in a well-ventilated area, away from sources of ignition and heat. Ethylene should be kept in a tightly closed container to prevent escape into the environment.

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate dosing information in paediatric cases, especially in instances of overdose.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing information based on clinical circumstances, particularly in cases of overdose.

Mechanism of action

Ethylene glycol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase to glycoaldehyde, which is subsequently converted to glycolic, glyoxylic, and oxalic acids. These metabolites contribute to anion gap metabolic acidosis and are responsible for tissue injury through the formation of insoluble calcium oxalate crystals.

Pharmacodynamics

The toxicity of ethylene glycol arises from its metabolites, particularly glycolic and oxalic acids. These compounds induce metabolic acidosis, lead to renal failure through calcium oxalate crystal deposition in the kidneys, and can cause neurological impairment. The anion gap increases due to the accumulation of these acids, leading to complications such as cardiovascular instability and potential multi-organ failure.

Pharmacokinetics

Ethylene glycol is rapidly absorbed after oral ingestion. It undergoes first-pass metabolism primarily in the liver, where it is converted into its toxic metabolites. The elimination half-life of ethylene glycol varies but is generally prolonged in cases of renal impairment. Renal excretion of metabolites contributes to the duration of toxicity, necessitating prompt medical intervention in cases of overdose.

Adverse effects

• Metabolic acidosis
• Renal failure
• CNS depression
• Hypocalcemia
• Cardiovascular collapse
• Pulmonary edema

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with renal impairment
• Monitor for signs of metabolic acidosis
• Evaluate electrolyte levels, particularly calcium

Pregnancy

There is limited data on the safety of ethylene glycol in pregnancy. It should only be used if clearly needed.

Breast-feeding

It is unknown if ethylene glycol is excreted in human milk. Caution is advised.

Storage

Store in a tightly closed container at room temperature, away from heat and moisture.

Formulations

• Liquid

Indications

• Antiseptic for skin disinfection
• Solvent in pharmaceutical formulations
• Cleaning agent in laboratories and healthcare settings

Dosage

Children: For pediatric use, consult specific guidelines in the BNF for Children, as dosing may vary based on age, weight, and clinical circumstances.

Adults: For skin antisepsis, apply isopropyl alcohol topically in a concentration of 70% to the affected area. Dosage may vary based on clinical indication and setting.

Mechanism of action

Isopropyl alcohol works primarily as an antiseptic by denaturing proteins and disrupting cell membranes of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, leading to cell lysis and death. Its efficacy is enhanced by the presence of water, which facilitates the penetration of the alcohol into microbial cells.

Pharmacodynamics

Isopropyl alcohol exhibits a rapid onset of action against a variety of pathogens, including gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and some viruses. Its antimicrobial activity is concentration-dependent, with higher concentrations generally providing a broader spectrum of activity. It is commonly used in concentrations ranging from 60% to 90%, with 70% being optimal for disinfection due to its ability to penetrate the cell wall effectively.

Pharmacokinetics

Isopropyl alcohol is readily absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes. After absorption, it is metabolized primarily in the liver to acetone, which is then further metabolized and excreted, mostly via urine. The elimination half-life of isopropyl alcohol varies but is typically around 2 to 3 hours. Its effects can be influenced by factors such as dosage, route of exposure, and individual metabolic differences.

Pregnancy

Isopropyl alcohol should be used with caution during pregnancy. It is a category C drug, indicating that risk cannot be ruled out.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised when using isopropyl alcohol during breastfeeding, as it is not known if it is excreted in human milk.

Storage

Isopropyl alcohol should be stored at room temperature, away from heat and flame. Keep the container tightly closed and in a well-ventilated area.

Formulations

• Isopropyl alcohol 70% solution
• Isopropyl alcohol 99% solution

Mechanism of action

Lake acts by inhibiting specific biological pathways, potentially modulating neurotransmitter activity or influencing enzymatic reactions related to its clinical indications. Detailed mechanisms may include receptor antagonism or agonism, enzyme inhibition, or alteration of ion channel activity, depending on the therapeutic target.

Pharmacodynamics

Lake demonstrates dose-dependent effects on the body, with its pharmacological activity correlating with the concentration of the drug in circulation. The drug may exhibit a range of effects from mild to significant, depending on the condition being treated and the individual patient's response.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetic profile of Lake includes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion characteristics that dictate its therapeutic efficacy and safety. The drug is expected to have a specific half-life, volume of distribution, and clearance rate, which may vary based on patient factors such as age, weight, and organ function.

Pregnancy

Use in pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Use with caution; it is not known whether this drug is excreted in human milk.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from light.

Indications

• Methemoglobinemia
• Urinary tract infections
• Laboratory staining agent

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing recommendations based on the condition being treated.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing recommendations based on the condition being treated.

Mechanism of action

Methylene blue acts as a reducing agent that facilitates the conversion of methemoglobin back to hemoglobin. It does this by donating electrons to the ferric ion in methemoglobin, reducing it to ferrous iron, which restores the molecule's ability to transport oxygen. It also has mild monoamine oxidase inhibitor activity, affecting neurotransmitter metabolism.

Pharmacodynamics

Methylene blue exhibits a variety of pharmacodynamic effects, primarily through its action on hemoglobin. By reducing methemoglobin levels, it improves oxygen delivery to tissues. Additionally, it has been noted to possess properties such as antimicrobial activity and potential neuroprotective effects in certain contexts. The overall effect is a restoration of normal oxygen transport and metabolism.

Pharmacokinetics

Methylene blue is rapidly absorbed after intravenous administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring shortly after dosing. It is distributed widely in body tissues, including the liver and kidneys. The drug undergoes hepatic metabolism, primarily by the cytochrome P450 system, and is excreted mainly in the urine as metabolites. The elimination half-life is approximately 5 to 6 hours, but this can vary depending on dosage and patient factors.

Pregnancy

Safety in pregnancy has not been established.

Breast-feeding

There is no information available regarding its excretion in human milk.

Storage

Store in a well-closed container in a cool, dry place.

Indications

• Used as an excipient in tablet formulations
• Used as a bulking agent in capsule formulations
• Used in food products as a thickener or stabilizer

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific product guidelines as dosage will depend on the formulation and the active ingredients.

Adults: Refer to specific product guidelines as dosage will depend on the formulation and the active ingredients.

Mechanism of action

Microcrystalline cellulose acts as a non-digestible filler that enhances the flow properties of powders during the manufacturing of tablets and capsules. It does not have a direct pharmacological action on the body but ensures that the active ingredients are effectively delivered to the patient.

Pharmacodynamics

As a non-active ingredient, microcrystalline cellulose does not exert pharmacodynamic effects typical of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Its primary role is to provide a stable and consistent matrix for the drug, facilitating the release of the active compound once ingested.

Pharmacokinetics

Microcrystalline cellulose is not absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract; it passes through the digestive system largely unchanged. It adds bulk to the stool, which may aid in promoting regular bowel movements. The substance is excreted in feces, where it contributes to dietary fiber intake.

Pregnancy

Data regarding the use of microcrystalline cellulose during pregnancy is limited. It is advisable to consult with healthcare professionals before use.

Breast-feeding

Microcrystalline cellulose is considered safe during breastfeeding, as it is not absorbed systemically.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight and moisture.

Indications

• Chronic constipation
• Occasional constipation
• Bowel preparation for diagnostic procedures

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for age-appropriate dosing information.

Adults: Refer to specific guidelines or the BNF for detailed dosing information.

Mechanism of action

Polyethylene glycol acts as an osmotic agent in the gastrointestinal tract. It retains water in the lumen of the intestines through osmosis, leading to an increase in stool moisture and volume. This effect promotes peristalsis and facilitates bowel movements.

Pharmacodynamics

PEG is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, thereby acting locally within the intestines. Its osmotic effect draws water into the bowel, increasing the bulk of the stool and stimulating bowel motility. The drug is generally well tolerated, with minimal side effects compared to other laxatives.

Pharmacokinetics

Polyethylene glycol is characterized by its poor absorption. It remains in the gastrointestinal tract and is excreted unchanged in the feces. The onset of action can vary, typically occurring in 1 to 3 days after ingestion, depending on the dosage and individual patient factors.

Pregnancy

Poly is not recommended during pregnancy unless the potential benefits outweigh the risks. Consult a healthcare provider for individualized assessment.

Breast-feeding

Poly may be excreted in breast milk. Caution is advised when administering to nursing mothers, and a healthcare provider should be consulted.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific drug formulations and product labels as purified substances can vary widely in their use and dosing.

Adults: Refer to specific drug formulations and product labels as purified substances can vary widely in their use and dosing.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action for purified compounds varies widely depending on the specific substance. Generally, purified drugs exert their effects by interacting with specific biological targets, such as receptors, enzymes, or ion channels, leading to a desired therapeutic effect. This interaction can involve binding to receptors to activate or inhibit signaling pathways, modulating enzymatic activity, or altering physiological processes.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics describes the effects of a drug on the body and the relationship between drug concentration and effect. For purified drugs, this can involve dose-response relationships and the time course of their action. The purified form often enhances potency and reduces variability in response among patients, which can lead to more predictable therapeutic outcomes. The overall effect is determined by the drug's affinity for its target, the efficacy of the drug-receptor interaction, and the downstream signaling pathways activated as a result of this interaction.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics involves the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of a drug. For purified substances, absorption can be more efficient due to the absence of impurities that may affect solubility or stability. Distribution may also be enhanced, leading to higher bioavailability. Metabolism can be influenced by the structure of the purified compound, as it may be metabolized more readily by liver enzymes. Excretion typically occurs through the kidneys or liver, depending on the molecular characteristics of the purified drug.

Pregnancy

Consult with a healthcare professional, as the safety of purified forms of medications during pregnancy may vary depending on the specific substance.

Breast-feeding

Consult with a healthcare professional, as the safety of purified forms of medications during breastfeeding may vary depending on the specific substance.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from light and moisture, and keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Antimalarial treatment
• Antibacterial therapy
• Potential use in cancer treatment

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for guidance on paediatric dosing, as it is crucial to adjust the dosage based on the child's weight and age.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific indications and dosing information for adults, as dosage can vary based on the condition being treated.

Mechanism of action

Quinoline binds to RNA, DNA, and certain polyribonucleotides in the presence of NADPH and rat liver microsomes. The binding reaction is enhanced by inducers of the microsomal monooxygenase system and is inhibited by carbon monoxide, aniline, 7,8-benzoflavone, metyrapone, or SKF 525A. Quinoline preferentially binds to poly(A), poly(C), poly(G), and poly(X), with negligible binding to poly(U) and poly(I). The reactive intermediate for nucleic acid modification appears to be the 2,3- or 3,4-epoxy derivative of quinoline.

Pharmacodynamics

Quinoline exhibits various pharmacological effects, including antimicrobial and antiparasitic activities. Its ability to bind to nucleic acids suggests a mechanism by which it may interfere with nucleic acid synthesis or function, potentially leading to cell death in susceptible organisms. The interaction with polyribonucleotides can alter RNA processing or function, impacting protein synthesis.

Pharmacokinetics

Information on the pharmacokinetics of quinoline is limited. However, compounds in this class are generally absorbed well when administered orally. They may undergo hepatic metabolism, with the potential for various metabolites being formed, some of which may be active. Excretion is primarily via the kidneys, with a half-life that can vary based on specific derivatives.

Pregnancy

There is limited information on the safety of quinoline during pregnancy. It is recommended to avoid use unless absolutely necessary.

Breast-feeding

It is unknown whether quinoline is excreted in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to breastfeeding mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Potential role in bone health
• Support for connective tissue formation
• May aid in mineral metabolism

Dosage

Children: There is no established clinical dosage for silicon in paediatric populations, as it is not classified as an essential nutrient.

Adults: There is no established clinical dosage for silicon in adults, as it is not classified as an essential nutrient.

Mechanism of action

Silicon is believed to enhance the synthesis of glycosaminoglycans and collagen, which are important for the structural integrity of connective tissues. It may also influence the activity of certain enzymes involved in bone mineralization, thus playing a role in maintaining bone density and health.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of silicon is not fully elucidated; however, it is thought to involve the modulation of bone metabolism and the promotion of connective tissue health. Silicon may have a synergistic effect with other minerals, such as calcium and magnesium, aiding in their utilization and metabolism in the body.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of silicon is complex, as it is not absorbed through typical gastrointestinal pathways. Instead, silicon is thought to be taken up in the form of silicates and then distributed throughout the body, particularly in connective tissues. The elimination of silicon occurs primarily through renal excretion, with some variations depending on dietary intake and individual metabolism.

Pregnancy

Silicon is generally considered safe during pregnancy, as it is a naturally occurring element in the human body. However, specific recommendations regarding supplementation should be followed based on the advice of a healthcare provider.

Breast-feeding

Silicon is present in breast milk in small amounts. Its safety during breastfeeding is generally regarded as acceptable, although supplementation should be approached with caution and under medical advice.

Storage

Silicon should be stored in a cool, dry place, protected from light and moisture. Follow specific storage recommendations provided by the manufacturer if available.

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific product formulations for guidelines, as dosing can vary based on the formulation and therapeutic context.

Adults: Refer to specific product formulations for guidelines, as dosing can vary based on the formulation and therapeutic context.

Mechanism of action

Stearates, such as magnesium stearate, function primarily by reducing friction during tablet manufacturing and enhancing the flow properties of powders. They do not exert a therapeutic pharmacological action in the body but facilitate the delivery of other active substances.

Pharmacodynamics

Given that stearates are primarily excipients, they do not exhibit traditional pharmacodynamic properties as active drugs do. Their role is to optimize the formulation of drugs, enhancing physical characteristics such as texture and consistency, which indirectly affect the performance of the active ingredients.

Pharmacokinetics

Stearates are poorly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract due to their lipid nature. When ingested, they may pass through the digestive system with minimal systemic absorption. Their primary action occurs at the site of formulation, where they assist in the dispersion and release of active ingredients rather than being metabolized or exerting effects in the body.

Pregnancy

The safety of sterate during pregnancy has not been established. It should only be used if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

It is not known whether sterate is excreted in human milk. Caution should be exercised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Used as an excipient in drug formulations
• Pleurodesis for the management of recurrent pleural effusions

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific guidelines for paediatric use, as dosing may differ based on age and clinical condition.

Adults: Refer to specific guidelines for the appropriate dosage in pleurodesis and other applications, as it may vary based on clinical context.

Mechanism of action

Talc exhibits very good absorptive properties, allowing it to absorb moisture and other substances effectively. This characteristic is particularly useful in pharmaceutical formulations, where it may enhance the stability and texture of the drug product.

Pharmacodynamics

Talc's primary pharmacodynamic effect is its ability to act as an inert filler and bulking agent in pharmaceutical preparations. It does not have any intrinsic pharmacological activity but serves to improve the physical properties of formulations, such as flowability and compressibility.

Pharmacokinetics

Talc is not absorbed systemically when used as an excipient or in medical procedures. Its effects are local, and it remains in the site of application, where it functions primarily as a mechanical agent. The pharmacokinetics of talc in the context of its use in pleurodesis involves its ability to promote adhesion of the pleural surfaces, thereby preventing fluid accumulation.

Pregnancy

Talc is classified as a substance with minimal systemic absorption, but safety during pregnancy has not been well established. Consult relevant guidelines.

Breast-feeding

Talc is not expected to be absorbed in significant amounts; however, caution is advised and consult guidelines.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Orthopedic implants
• Dental implants
• Prosthetic devices
• Surgical instruments

Mechanism of action

Titanium does not have a specific mechanism of action as it is not a drug in the traditional sense. Instead, its biocompatibility allows it to integrate with biological tissues without eliciting significant immune responses, making it suitable for use in implants and prosthetic devices. The presence of titanium ions can influence biological processes, including cell proliferation and differentiation.

Pharmacodynamics

Titanium itself does not exhibit pharmacodynamics as it is not administered as a drug. Its interactions within biological systems are primarily mechanical and structural, providing support and stability in orthopedic and dental applications. The biocompatibility of titanium allows for favorable tissue integration and reduced rejection rates compared to other materials.

Pharmacokinetics

As titanium is not a pharmacological agent, traditional pharmacokinetic parameters such as absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion do not apply. Titanium is typically utilized in solid forms, such as implants, where it remains localized and does not undergo metabolism or systemic circulation.

Pregnancy

There is limited data on the use of titanium during pregnancy. Consult a healthcare professional before use.

Breast-feeding

There is limited data on the excretion of titanium in breast milk. Consult a healthcare professional before use.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Hyperkalemia
• Acute kidney injury
• Chronic kidney disease-related hyperkalemia
• Management of potassium levels in patients receiving certain medications

Dosage

Children: Refer to clinical guidelines and dosing references as specific doses may vary based on individual patient needs and clinical context.

Adults: Refer to clinical guidelines and dosing references as specific doses may vary based on individual patient needs and clinical context.

Mechanism of action

Tulsion acts as a cation-exchange resin in the intestines. It binds potassium ions in exchange for sodium ions, leading to an increase in sodium levels and a decrease in potassium levels in the body. The resin is not absorbed systemically, and its action is localized within the gastrointestinal tract.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of Tulsion involve the binding and exchange of potassium ions for sodium ions. This exchange results in a decrease in serum potassium concentration and helps to prevent the complications associated with hyperkalemia, such as cardiac arrhythmias. The onset of action is typically within hours, and the effect can be maintained as long as the resin is present in the gut.

Pharmacokinetics

Tulsion is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract; therefore, its pharmacokinetics are primarily limited to its local action in the gut. The drug is excreted in the feces following the exchange process. The duration of action can vary based on the gastrointestinal transit time and the amount of resin present. Regular monitoring of potassium levels is recommended to assess effectiveness and avoid complications.

Adverse effects

• Gastrointestinal disturbances
• Hypophosphatemia
• Hypercalcemia
• Constipation
• Nausea
• Vomiting

Interactions

• May interact with other medications that affect electrolyte levels
• Antacids may reduce the absorption of certain drugs

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with renal impairment
• Monitor electrolyte levels regularly during treatment
• Consider potential interactions with other medications

Pregnancy

Tulsion should only be used during pregnancy if clearly needed. The effects on fetal development are not fully established.

Breast-feeding

It is not known whether Tulsion is excreted in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to breastfeeding women.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and heat. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Oral suspension
• Powder for oral solution

Pregnancy

No specific data available, consult a healthcare professional.

Breast-feeding

No specific data available, consult a healthcare professional.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light.

Mechanism of action

Ethanol affects the brain’s neurons in several ways. It alters their membranes as well as their ion channels, enzymes, and receptors. Alcohol also binds directly to the receptors for acetylcholine, serotonin, GABA, and the NMDA receptors for glutamate. The sedative effects of ethanol are mediated through binding to GABA receptors and glycine receptors (alpha 1 and alpha 2 subunits). It also inhibits NMDA receptor functioning. In its role as an anti-infective, ethanol acts as an osmolyte or dehydrating agent that disrupts the osmotic balance across cell membranes. ... Ethanol is known to affect a large number of membrane proteins that participate in signaling pathways such as neurotransmitter receptors, enzymes, and ion channels, and there is extensive evidence that ethanol interacts with a variety of neurotransmitters. The major actions of ethanol involve enhancing the inhibitory effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at GABAa receptors and blockade of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate, an excitatory amine acid (EAA) receptor. Animal studies indicate that the acute effects of ethanol result from competitive inhibition of glycine binding to NMDA receptor and disruption of glutamatergic neurotransmission by inhibiting the response of the NMDA receptor. Persistent glycine antagonism and attenuation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by chronic ethanol exposure results in tolerance to ethanol by enhancing EAA neurotransmission and NMDA receptor upregulation. The latter appears to involve selective increases in NMDA R2B subunit concentrations and other molecular changes in specific brain loci. The abrupt withdrawal of ethanol thus produces a hyperexcitable state that leads to the ethanol withdrawal syndrome and excitotoxic neuronal death. GABA-mediated inhibition, which normally acts to limit excitation, is eliminated during ethanol withdrawal syndrome and further intensifies this excitation. In addition, NMDA receptors function to inhibit the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and mesolimbic structures, which modulate the reinforcing action of addictive xenobiotics such as ethanol. By inhibiting NMDA receptor activity, ethanol could increase dopamine release from the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area and could thus create dependence. Chronic ethanol administration also results in tolerance, dependence, and an ethanol withdrawal syndrome, mediated, in part, by desensitization and or downregulation of GABAa receptors. The development of alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA) requires that a combination of physical and physiologic events occur. The normal response to starvation and depletion of hepatic glycogen stores is for amino acids to be converted to pyruvate. Pyruvate can serve as a substrate for gluconeogenesis, be converted to acetyl-CoA, which can enter the Krebs cycle or can be utilized in various biosynthetic pathways (eg, fatty acid, ketone bodies, cholesterol, and acetylcholine) ... Ethanol metabolism generates NADH, resulting in an excess of reducing potential. This high redox state favors the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, diverting pyruvate from being a substrate for gluconeogenesis. To compensate for the lack of normal metabolic substrates, the body mobilizes fat from adipose tissue and increased fatty acid metabolism as an alternative source of energy. This response is mediated by a decrease in insulin and an increased secretion of glucagon, catecholamines, growth hormone, and cortisol. Fatty acid metabolism results in the formation of acetyl-CoA and it combines with the excess acetate that is generated from ethanol metabolism to form acetoacetate. Most of the acetoacetate is reduced to beta-hydroxybutyrate due to the excess reducing potential or high redox state of the cell. Volume depletion interferes with the renal elimination of acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate, and contributes to the acidosis. An elevated lactate concentration may result from shunting from pyruvate or

Pharmacodynamics

Alcohol produces injury to cells by dehydration and precipitation of the cytoplasm or protoplasm. This accounts for its bacteriocidal and antifungal action. When alcohol is injected in close proximity to nerve tissues, it produces neuritis and nerve degeneration (neurolysis). Ninety to 98% of ethanol that enters the body is completely oxidized. Ethanol is also used as a cosolvent to dissolve many insoluble drugs and to serve as a mild sedative in some medicinal formulations. Ethanol also binds to GABA, glycine, NMDA receptors and modulates their effects. Ethanol is also metabolised by the hepatic enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.

Mechanism of action

Cetirizine, a metabolite of _hydroxyzine_, is an antihistamine drug. Its main effects are achieved through selective inhibition of peripheral H1 receptors. The antihistamine activity of cetirizine has been shown in a variety of animal and human models. _In vivo_ and _ex vivo_ animal models have shown insignificant anticholinergic and antiserotonergic effects. In clinical studies, however, dry mouth was found to be more frequent with cetirizine than with a placebo. In vitro receptor binding studies have demonstrated no detectable affinity of cetirizine for histamine receptors other than the H1 receptors. Studies with radiolabeled cetirizine administration in the rat have demonstrated insignificant penetration into the brain. _Ex vivo_ studies in the mouse have shown that systemically administered cetirizine does not occupy cerebral H1 receptors significantly. Cetirizine, a human metabolite of hydroxyzine, is an antihistamine; its principal effects are mediated via selective inhibition of peripheral H1 receptors. The antihistaminic activity of cetirizine has been clearly documented in a variety of animal and human models. In vivo and ex vivo animal models have shown negligible anticholinergic and antiserotonergic activity. In clinical studies, however, dry mouth was more common with cetirizine than with placebo. In vitro receptor binding studies have shown no measurable affinity for other than H1 receptors. Autoradiographic studies with radiolabeled cetirizine in the rat have shown negligible penetration into the brain. Ex vivo experiments in the mouse have shown that systemically administered cetirizine does not significantly occupy cerebral H1 receptors.

Pharmacodynamics

**General effects and respiratory effects** Cetirizine, the active metabolite of the piperazine H₁-receptor antagonist hydroxyzine, minimizes or eliminates the symptoms of chronic idiopathic urticaria, perennial allergic rhinitis, seasonal allergic rhinitis, allergic asthma, physical urticaria, and atopic dermatitis. The clinical efficacy of cetirizine for allergic respiratory diseases has been well established in numerous trials. **Effects on urticaria/anti-inflammatory effects** It has anti-inflammatory properties that may play a role in asthma management. There is evidence that cetirizine improves symptoms of urticaria. Marked clinical inhibition of a wheal and flare response occurs in infants, children as well as adults within 20 minutes of one oral dose and lasts for 24 h. Concomitant use of cetirizine reduces the duration and dose of topical anti-inflammatory formulas used for the treatment of atopic dermatitis.

Mechanism of action

Ethylene interferes with the activities of plant hormones causing growth retardation.

Mechanism of action

Ethylene glycol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase to glycoaldehyde, which is then metabolized to glycolic, glyoxylic, and oxalic acids. These acids, along with excess lactic acid are responsible for the anion gap metabolic acidosis. Oxalic acid readily precipitates with calcium to form insoluble calcium oxalate crystals. Tissue injury is caused by widespread deposition of oxalate crystals and the toxic effects of glycolic and glyoxylic acids.

Mechanism of action

QUINOLINE BINDS TO RNA, DNA & CERTAIN POLYRIBONUCLEOTIDES IN PRESENCE OF NADPH & RAT LIVER MICROSOMES. BINDING WAS PRONOUNCED WITH HELP OF SOME INDUCERS OF MICROSOMAL MONOOXYGENASE SYSTEM. BINDING REACTION REQUIRED NADPH & WAS INHIBITED BY CARBON MONOXIDE, ANILINE, 7,8-BENZOFLAVONE, METHYRAPONE OR SKF 525A. QUINOLINE BOUND PREFERENTIALLY TO POLY(A), POLY(C), POLY(G) & POLY(X), BUT NEGLIGIBLY TO POLY(U) & POLY(I). MOST OF QUINOLINE RESIDUES OF THE ADDUCTS, REGARDLESS OF KIND OF POLYNUCLEOTIDES USED WERE RELEASED BY ACID OR ALKALI AT 100 °C IN FORM OF 3-HYDROXYQUINOLINE. THE 2,3- OR 3,4-EPOXY DERIVATIVE OF QUINOLINE APPARENTLY IS THE REACTIVE INTERMEDIATE FOR NUCLEIC ACID MODIFICATION.

Mechanism of action

It has very good absorptive properties.