HEKOTOS (RASPBERRY)

Indications

• Fluid and electrolyte imbalances
• Hypoglycemia
• Nutritional supplementation
• Diabetic emergencies

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate paediatric dosing guidelines.

Adults: The dosage varies based on the clinical condition and specific formulation used. For intravenous administration, consult product literature for precise dosing.

Mechanism of action

Glucose supplies energy to tissues by undergoing glycolysis, which begins with its phosphorylation by hexokinase to form glucose 6-phosphate. This activates glucose for breakdown, ultimately generating ATP and NADH. The aerobic metabolism of glucose can yield up to 36 ATP molecules. Glucose also serves as a precursor for other biomolecules and regulates various physiological processes including gene transcription and hormone secretion.

Pharmacodynamics

Glucose is an obligatory energy source for cellular activities and plays a significant role in metabolic signaling. It is oxidized to yield energy through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose can be converted into fat for energy storage and is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Its administration increases blood glucose levels and stimulates insulin secretion, particularly through oral routes that activate gut incretin hormones.

Pharmacokinetics

Glucose is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract or directly into the bloodstream when administered intravenously. It is distributed widely throughout the body and metabolized primarily in tissues requiring energy. The body maintains glucose homeostasis through regulatory mechanisms involving insulin and glucagon. Excess glucose can be stored as glycogen or converted to triglycerides for long-term energy storage.

Adverse effects

• Hyperglycemia
• Increased osmolarity
• Fluid overload
• Electrolyte imbalances

Interactions

• Insulin - may require dose adjustments

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with diabetes mellitus
• Monitor blood glucose levels in patients receiving parenteral glucose
• Adjust dosage in renal impairment

Pregnancy

Glucose is generally considered safe in pregnancy; however, monitoring is advised, especially in diabetic patients.

Breast-feeding

Glucose is considered safe during breastfeeding, as it is a natural sugar found in breast milk.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from light. Avoid freezing.

Formulations

• Glucose 5% solution for infusion
• Glucose 10% solution for infusion
• Glucose 0.9% solution for injection
• Glucose sodium chloride combination solutions

Indications

• Antioxidant support
• Immune system enhancement
• Anti-inflammatory treatment
• Digestive health improvement
• Skin health promotion
• Lipid profile management
• Blood sugar regulation

Dosage

Children: Refer to established guidelines or consult a healthcare professional for specific dosage recommendations for children, as doses may vary based on individual needs and formulations.

Adults: Refer to established guidelines or consult a healthcare professional for specific dosage recommendations, as doses may vary based on the form of amla and the intended use.

Mechanism of action

Amla exerts its therapeutic effects primarily through its high concentration of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which acts as a potent antioxidant. It scavenges free radicals, thereby protecting cells from oxidative stress. Additionally, the polyphenols found in amla may modulate various signaling pathways involved in inflammation and immunity, contributing to its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of amla include its ability to enhance immune function, reduce inflammation, and provide antioxidant protection. Amla has been shown to improve lipid profiles, regulate blood sugar levels, and support liver health. Its bioactive compounds may also promote gastric mucosal health and improve gastrointestinal function.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of amla are not extensively studied, but its active constituents are believed to be rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The bioavailability of vitamin C is high, and the antioxidant compounds may be distributed throughout the body, exerting their effects in various tissues. The metabolism and excretion pathways of amla's active ingredients have not been fully elucidated but are thought to involve hepatic metabolism and renal excretion.

Adverse effects

• Gastrointestinal upset
• Diarrhea
• Nausea
• Allergic reactions

Interactions

• May enhance the effects of anticoagulants
• Potential interaction with antidiabetic medications leading to additive effects

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with diabetes due to potential blood sugar-lowering effects
• Monitor for allergic reactions in individuals with known allergies

Pregnancy

Amla is generally considered safe during pregnancy when consumed in food amounts, but high doses should be avoided due to limited safety data.

Breast-feeding

Amla is likely safe during breastfeeding in food amounts, but consult a healthcare provider for medicinal use.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Powder
• Capsules
• Extracts
• Juice

Indications

• Acidulant in food and beverages
• Preservative in pharmaceutical formulations
• pH adjuster in various chemical preparations

Dosage

Children: Refer to product-specific guidelines for appropriate dosing based on formulation and indication.

Adults: Refer to product-specific guidelines for appropriate dosing based on formulation and indication.

Mechanism of action

Citric acid acts by chelating metal ions, which can enhance the solubility of certain compounds and improve their bioavailability. It also contributes to the acidity of the environment, which can influence enzymatic activity and metabolic pathways, particularly in the degradation of citronellol.

Pharmacodynamics

Citric acid exhibits mild pharmacological effects primarily attributed to its role in metabolic processes. It aids in the regulation of pH levels, which can impact enzymatic reactions and biochemical pathways. The acid's chelating properties may help to reduce the toxicity of certain metal ions in biological systems.

Pharmacokinetics

Citric acid is rapidly absorbed after oral administration and is metabolized in the liver. It undergoes conversion to various metabolites in the citric acid cycle, contributing to energy production. The elimination primarily occurs through urine, with minimal accumulation in the body.

Pregnancy

Citric acid is generally regarded as safe during pregnancy when used in food amounts. However, consult a healthcare provider for advice on medicinal use.

Breast-feeding

Citric acid is considered safe during breastfeeding when consumed in food amounts. For medicinal use, consult a healthcare provider.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Enhancement of taste in food and beverages
• Improvement of palatability in nutritional products
• Masking undesirable flavors in medications

Dosage

Children: There is no specific pediatric dosage for flavor agents as they are used as needed to improve the taste of food and beverages.

Adults: There is no specific dosage for flavor agents as they are used as needed to achieve the desired taste and aroma in food and beverages.

Mechanism of action

Flavor compounds interact with taste receptors on the tongue, stimulating the sensory neurons responsible for taste perception. This interaction influences the overall flavor profile of food and beverages, enhancing the eating experience. Some flavors may also have a psychological effect, stimulating appetite or evoking pleasant memories associated with certain tastes.

Pharmacodynamics

While flavor agents are primarily used for sensory enhancement in food, their pharmacodynamic effects are minimal as they are not designed to elicit a pharmacological response. However, certain flavors may influence digestion and metabolism indirectly by enhancing saliva production or affecting gut motility. The enjoyment of flavored products can also lead to increased food intake and satisfaction.

Pharmacokinetics

Flavour compounds are typically ingested and metabolized by the body. Their absorption rates can vary depending on their chemical structure and formulation. Once ingested, they may be rapidly metabolized in the liver and other tissues, with excretion primarily via urine. The specific pharmacokinetic profiles of flavor agents can vary significantly based on their source and chemical properties.

Pregnancy

Flavours are generally considered safe for use during pregnancy, but specific assessments should be made based on the type of flavouring agent.

Breast-feeding

Most flavouring agents are deemed safe during breastfeeding, although it's advisable to consult healthcare professionals regarding specific ingredients.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight and heat sources. Ensure that the container is tightly sealed to prevent contamination.

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate dosing information in paediatric cases, especially in instances of overdose.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing information based on clinical circumstances, particularly in cases of overdose.

Mechanism of action

Ethylene glycol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase to glycoaldehyde, which is subsequently converted to glycolic, glyoxylic, and oxalic acids. These metabolites contribute to anion gap metabolic acidosis and are responsible for tissue injury through the formation of insoluble calcium oxalate crystals.

Pharmacodynamics

The toxicity of ethylene glycol arises from its metabolites, particularly glycolic and oxalic acids. These compounds induce metabolic acidosis, lead to renal failure through calcium oxalate crystal deposition in the kidneys, and can cause neurological impairment. The anion gap increases due to the accumulation of these acids, leading to complications such as cardiovascular instability and potential multi-organ failure.

Pharmacokinetics

Ethylene glycol is rapidly absorbed after oral ingestion. It undergoes first-pass metabolism primarily in the liver, where it is converted into its toxic metabolites. The elimination half-life of ethylene glycol varies but is generally prolonged in cases of renal impairment. Renal excretion of metabolites contributes to the duration of toxicity, necessitating prompt medical intervention in cases of overdose.

Adverse effects

• Metabolic acidosis
• Renal failure
• CNS depression
• Hypocalcemia
• Cardiovascular collapse
• Pulmonary edema

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with renal impairment
• Monitor for signs of metabolic acidosis
• Evaluate electrolyte levels, particularly calcium

Pregnancy

There is limited data on the safety of ethylene glycol in pregnancy. It should only be used if clearly needed.

Breast-feeding

It is unknown if ethylene glycol is excreted in human milk. Caution is advised.

Storage

Store in a tightly closed container at room temperature, away from heat and moisture.

Formulations

• Liquid

Indications

• Insecticide for agricultural use
• Research tool in toxicology

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing and administration guidelines.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing and administration guidelines.

Mechanism of action

Methyl parathion acts primarily by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is essential for the breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Its active metabolite, methyl paraoxon, is a potent inhibitor of both acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. The inhibition of these enzymes results in the accumulation of acetylcholine at synapses, leading to overstimulation of cholinergic receptors and resultant toxic effects.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of methyl parathion involve its action as a noncompetitive inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase, causing prolonged effects of acetylcholine due to its inability to be hydrolyzed. The resultant cholinergic toxicity can lead to symptoms such as muscle twitching, respiratory distress, and potentially fatal outcomes if not treated promptly. The extent of inhibition is dose-dependent, with significant toxicity occurring after substantial enzyme inhibition.

Pharmacokinetics

Methyl parathion is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and can also be absorbed through the skin and respiratory tract. It is metabolized in the liver to form methyl paraoxon, which is responsible for the majority of its toxic effects. The distribution of methyl parathion in body tissues is influenced by its lipophilicity, and it is primarily excreted as metabolites in the urine. The elimination half-life and specific pharmacokinetic parameters can vary based on individual metabolism and exposure levels.

Pregnancy

There are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

It is not known whether this drug is excreted in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to nursing women.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Liquid formulation

Indications

• Sore throat
• Cough
• Gastrointestinal disorders
• Inflammatory conditions

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific guidelines or herbal preparation recommendations as no standard dosage is established.

Adults: Refer to specific guidelines or herbal preparation recommendations as no standard dosage is established.

Mechanism of action

Glycyrrhizin, the primary active component of mulethi, inhibits the enzyme 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, leading to increased cortisol levels in the body. This mechanism may contribute to its anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, glycyrrhizin exhibits antiviral activity against several viruses by inhibiting viral replication and modulating immune responses.

Pharmacodynamics

Mulethi displays various pharmacodynamic effects including anti-inflammatory, antitussive, expectorant, and demulcent activities. It may help soothe irritated mucous membranes, providing relief from cough and sore throat. Moreover, it has been shown to exert effects on the gastrointestinal tract, potentially aiding in conditions such as peptic ulcers due to its protective properties.

Pharmacokinetics

The bioavailability of glycyrrhizin after oral administration can vary, with peak plasma concentrations typically occurring within 1 to 2 hours. Glycyrrhizin is metabolized in the liver, primarily by conjugation processes, and its metabolites are excreted via the kidneys. The elimination half-life of glycyrrhizin can be several hours, and prolonged use may lead to accumulation and potential side effects.

Adverse effects

• Hypersensitivity reactions
• Gastrointestinal disturbances
• Hypertension in excessive doses

Interactions

• May interact with anticoagulants, increasing the risk of bleeding
• Can affect the metabolism of corticosteroids
• May reduce the effectiveness of certain diuretics

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with hypertension
• Caution in patients with cardiovascular disease
• Should be avoided in patients with a history of hormone-sensitive conditions

Pregnancy

Mulethi (licorice) should be used with caution during pregnancy due to potential effects on hormone levels and blood pressure.

Breast-feeding

Limited data are available; consult a healthcare provider before use while breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Dried root
• Powder
• Extract
• Tea

Indications

• Anti-inflammatory
• Analgesic
• Antioxidant
• Traditional medicine uses

Dosage

Children: Refer to established guidelines or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing, as specific pediatric dosing information is not available.

Adults: Refer to established guidelines or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing, as specific dosing information is not available.

Mechanism of action

Phool is thought to exert its effects through multiple pathways, including the modulation of inflammatory mediators and scavenging of free radicals. The specific active compounds within phool may interact with various receptors and signaling pathways, contributing to its therapeutic effects.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of phool are characterized by its ability to influence various biological processes, including reducing inflammation and pain. Its antioxidant properties may help mitigate oxidative stress in cells, promoting overall health. The exact dose-response relationship and therapeutic window are not well established, necessitating careful monitoring in clinical use.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of phool, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, are not thoroughly characterized. However, it is typically assumed that the bioactive components are absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract, with potential hepatic metabolism. The half-life and clearance rates have not been definitively established, highlighting the need for further pharmacokinetic studies.

Pregnancy

Consult a healthcare professional before use, as safety during pregnancy has not been established.

Breast-feeding

Consult a healthcare professional before use, as safety during breastfeeding has not been established.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Plant growth regulation
• Agricultural applications as a growth inhibitor

Dosage

Children: Not applicable.

Adults: Refer to the relevant agricultural guidelines for specific applications.

Mechanism of action

In an in vitro study, propylene acts as a plant growth inhibitor by inhibiting the oxidation of indole-3-acetic acid by peroxidase in the presence of superoxide anion radicals. This inhibition is linked to the activation of an iron complex (compound III) shuttle, which enhances the reaction rate between superoxide and peroxidase, ultimately affecting plant growth processes. Propylene is a less effective inhibitor compared to ethylene.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of propylene are primarily observed in its role as a growth inhibitor in plants. By modulating the oxidation of phytohormones like indole-3-acetic acid, propylene can influence various growth responses in plants, potentially affecting processes such as cell elongation and division.

Pharmacokinetics

Information on the pharmacokinetics of propylene in humans is not well-documented, as its primary uses are industrial and agricultural. Its metabolism may be influenced by environmental factors, and its effects are primarily studied in the context of plant biology rather than human pharmacology.

Indications

• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• Dyspepsia
• Nausea
• Headaches (topically applied)
• Respiratory conditions (as an inhalant)

Dosage

Children: Refer to established guidelines for specific formulations, as doses may vary depending on the form of peppermint used and the age of the child.

Adults: Refer to established guidelines for specific formulations, as doses may vary depending on the form of peppermint used (e.g., tea, oil, capsules).

Mechanism of action

The primary mechanism of action of peppermint is attributed to menthol, which activates the TRPM8 (transient receptor potential melastatin 8) ion channel, producing a cooling sensation. This action can help relax smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract, reduce spasms, and enhance the flow of bile, facilitating digestion. Furthermore, menthol exhibits mild analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, which contribute to its use in topical applications.

Pharmacodynamics

Peppermint has antispasmodic, carminative, and analgesic properties. It enhances gastrointestinal motility and reduces the perception of pain in the digestive tract. The herb's volatile oil components can influence smooth muscle tone, leading to relaxation and relief from cramping and discomfort. Additionally, peppermint promotes salivation and bile secretion, further aiding digestion.

Pharmacokinetics

Peppermint oil is rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract following oral administration. The main active components, such as menthol, are metabolized primarily in the liver. The half-life of menthol varies, but it is generally eliminated within a few hours. Topical applications lead to localized effects, with minimal systemic absorption. The pharmacokinetics of peppermint are influenced by factors such as dosage form and individual metabolism.

Pregnancy

Consult a healthcare provider before use, as safety during pregnancy has not been established.

Breast-feeding

Consult a healthcare provider before use, as safety during breastfeeding has not been established.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Antioxidant support
• Anti-inflammatory effects
• Potential cancer prevention
• Support for cardiovascular health
• Glycemic control

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific dietary guidelines. No standard therapeutic dose established.

Adults: Refer to specific dietary guidelines. No standard therapeutic dose established.

Mechanism of action

The bioactive compounds in raspberries, such as ellagic acid, quercetin, and anthocyanins, exert their effects through various mechanisms. They are known to scavenge free radicals, modulate cell signaling pathways, and influence gene expression related to inflammation and cancer progression. These compounds may also enhance the activity of certain detoxifying enzymes in the body.

Pharmacodynamics

Raspberry exhibits antioxidant activity, which helps protect cells from oxidative stress and damage caused by free radicals. The anti-inflammatory properties are attributed to the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes, thereby reducing inflammation. Additionally, some studies suggest that components of raspberry may influence lipid metabolism and improve glycemic control.

Pharmacokinetics

The bioactive compounds in raspberries are subject to digestion and metabolism, with absorption occurring primarily in the intestine. The specific pharmacokinetics of raspberry compounds can vary based on the individual compound, but generally, they are rapidly absorbed and can be detected in plasma shortly after consumption. The half-life of these compounds can vary significantly depending on the specific component and individual metabolic factors.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions
• Gastrointestinal upset
• Diarrhea

Precautions

• Use with caution in individuals with known allergies to berries.
• Consult a healthcare provider before use in patients with diabetes due to potential effects on blood sugar levels.

Pregnancy

Raspberries are generally considered safe during pregnancy when consumed in moderate amounts as part of a healthy diet.

Breast-feeding

Raspberries are safe to consume while breastfeeding, but excessive intake should be avoided.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place. Fresh raspberries should be refrigerated and consumed within a few days.

Formulations

• Fresh raspberries
• Dried raspberries
• Raspberry extract
• Raspberry juice

Indications

• Preservation of food products
• Preservation of pharmaceutical formulations
• Antimicrobial agent in cosmetic products

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific product guidelines for dosage as it varies by formulation and intended use.

Adults: Refer to specific product guidelines for dosage as it varies by formulation and intended use.

Mechanism of action

Sorbate acts primarily by inhibiting the growth of fungi and some bacteria. It interferes with the microbial cell membrane, disrupting its integrity and function, which leads to cell death. The presence of sorbate alters the pH and osmotic balance within the microbial cell, inhibiting key metabolic processes necessary for reproduction and survival.

Pharmacodynamics

Sorbate exhibits its antimicrobial effects at relatively low concentrations. It is most effective in acidic environments, typically at a pH of 4.5 or lower. The compound is more effective against yeasts and molds compared to bacteria. Its mode of action is primarily through the inhibition of fatty acid synthesis and alteration of membrane permeability in target microorganisms.

Pharmacokinetics

Sorbate is generally regarded as having low toxicity and is rapidly metabolized in the human body. It is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract when ingested and is then distributed throughout the body. The compound undergoes conversion to various metabolites and is primarily excreted via the urine. Its half-life and specific metabolic pathways can vary depending on the form of administration and individual patient factors.

Pregnancy

There is limited data on the safety of sorbate in pregnancy. Use only if clearly needed and potential benefits justify the risks.

Breast-feeding

There is insufficient information regarding the excretion of sorbate in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Nausea and vomiting associated with motion sickness
• Postoperative nausea and vomiting
• Osteoarthritis
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Dyspepsia

Dosage

Children: Refer to established guidelines and consult with a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing.

Adults: Refer to established guidelines and consult with a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing.

Mechanism of action

The primary active components of ginger are gingerols and shogaols. These compounds exert their effects through various mechanisms, including the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes such as cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase. This leads to a reduction in inflammation and pain. Additionally, ginger may enhance gastrointestinal motility and reduce nausea by acting on the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system.

Pharmacodynamics

Ginger has been shown to possess antiemetic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory effects. It influences the gastrointestinal system by increasing gastric motility and reducing nausea and vomiting, making it effective for motion sickness and postoperative nausea. The anti-inflammatory properties are beneficial in conditions such as arthritis, while its antioxidant capabilities help combat oxidative stress.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of ginger involves absorption after oral administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1-2 hours. The bioavailability of ginger compounds can be affected by food, and they are metabolized primarily in the liver. Ginger is eliminated from the body via the urine and feces, with a relatively short half-life of about 2-3 hours.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Consult a healthcare provider for advice.

Breast-feeding

Use with caution. Consult a healthcare provider for advice on potential risks and benefits.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture.

Indications

• Providing energy in dietary supplementation
• Enhancing flavor in food products
• Replacement of carbohydrates in certain medical nutrition therapies

Dosage

Children: Refer to general dietary guidelines for carbohydrate intake in children. No specific dosing guidelines provided.

Adults: Refer to general dietary guidelines for carbohydrate intake. No specific dosing guidelines provided.

Mechanism of action

Sugar is metabolized in the body to provide energy. Upon ingestion, sucrose is broken down by the enzyme sucrase into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. These monosaccharides can be utilized by cells for energy or stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

Pharmacodynamics

As a simple carbohydrate, sugar elevates blood glucose levels rapidly after consumption, leading to increased insulin secretion from the pancreas. This insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose by tissues, promoting energy production. The rapid increase in blood sugar can provide quick energy but may also lead to potential negative effects on metabolism and weight if consumed in excess.

Pharmacokinetics

After oral administration, sugar is quickly hydrolyzed in the gastrointestinal tract. Peak plasma glucose concentrations typically occur within 30 minutes to 2 hours post-ingestion, depending on the amount consumed and individual metabolism. The half-life of glucose in the bloodstream is relatively short, as it is rapidly taken up by tissues or converted into glycogen.

Pregnancy

Sugar is generally considered safe for use during pregnancy, but excessive intake should be avoided to prevent gestational diabetes and excessive weight gain.

Breast-feeding

Sugar is safe during breastfeeding; however, excessive consumption should be avoided.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from moisture and direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Granulated sugar
• Brown sugar
• Powdered sugar
• Liquid sugar

Mechanism of action

Glucose supplies most of the energy to all tissues by generating energy molecules ATP and NADH during a series of metabolism reactions called glycolysis. Glycolysis can be divided into two main phases where the preparatory phase is initiated by the phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase to form glucose 6-phosphate. The addition of the high-energy phosphate group activates glucose for the subsequent breakdown in later steps of glycolysis and is the rate-limiting step. Products end up as substrates for following reactions, to ultimately convert C6 glucose molecule into two C3 sugar molecules. These products enter the energy-releasing phase where the total of 4ATP and 2NADH molecules are generated per one glucose molecule. The total aerobic metabolism of glucose can produce up to 36 ATP molecules. These energy-producing reactions of glucose are limited to D-glucose as L-glucose cannot be phosphorylated by hexokinase. Glucose can act as precursors to generate other biomolecules such as vitamin C. It plays a role as a signaling molecule to control glucose and energy homeostasis. Glucose can regulate gene transcription, enzyme activity, hormone secretion, and the activity of glucoregulatory neurons. The types, number, and kinetics of glucose transporters expressed depends on the tissues and fine-tunes glucose uptake, metabolism, and signal generation to preserve cellular and whole body metabolic integrity. Vascular calcification is a hallmark of type 2 diabetes. Glucose stimulates calcification in culture of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) but the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. We observed that high glucose levels stimulated mouse and human VSMC trans-differentiation into chondrocytes, with increased levels of Sox9, type II collagen, glycosaminoglycan and Runx2 expression, and increased alkaline phosphatase activity and mineralization. These effects were associated with increased expression of IL-1beta, which stimulated alkaline phosphatase and calcification, suggesting that glucose induces chondrocyte differentiation of VSMCs, possibly through IL-1beta activation.

Pharmacodynamics

Blood glucose is an obligatory energy source for humans involved in various cellular activities, and it also acts as a signaling molecule for diverse glucose-sensing molecules and proteins. Glucose undergoes oxidation into carbon dioxide, water, and yields energy molecules in the process of glycolysis and subsequent citric cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is readily converted into fat in the body which can be used as a source of energy as required. Under a similar conversion into storage of energy, glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen. Glucose stores are mobilized in a regulated manner, depending on the tissues' metabolic demands. Oral glucose tablets or injections serve to increase the supply of glucose and oral glucose administration is more effective in stimulating insulin secretion because it stimulates the incretin hormones from the gut, which promotes insulin secretion.

Mechanism of action

Ethylene glycol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase to glycoaldehyde, which is then metabolized to glycolic, glyoxylic, and oxalic acids. These acids, along with excess lactic acid are responsible for the anion gap metabolic acidosis. Oxalic acid readily precipitates with calcium to form insoluble calcium oxalate crystals. Tissue injury is caused by widespread deposition of oxalate crystals and the toxic effects of glycolic and glyoxylic acids.

Mechanism of action

Acute poisoning ... is related to ... inhibiting action on enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Toxic manifestations generally occur only after more than 50% of plasma cholinesterase is inhibited. ... Methyl parathion ... depend on oxidative activation by replacement of thiono-sulfur with oxygen for ... toxicity. Methyl parathion has only a slight inhibitory action on acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase, but its active metabolite, methyl paraoxon, is a potent inhibitor of both these enzymes. A study was conducted examining the inhibition of (Ca2+ and Mg2+)-ATPase by parathion (56382) and methyl parathion. Enzyme activity was assessed spectrophotometrically in pig erythrocyte membranes containing calcium2+ (Ca2+) and magnesium2+ and in solubilized membrane preparations incubated with the test agents. The enzyme response to ATP was biphasic. Equations expressing the kinetics of the substrate curves described two classes of the ATP binding active site, one with high affinity and low maximum rate and one with low affinity and high maximum rate. High affinity active sites were stimulated by low ATP concentrations (20 uM), whereas low affinity active sites were stimulated by high ATP levels (2 mM). Parathion and methylparathion dose dependently inhibited enzyme activity; parathion had a greater inhibitory effect than methylparathion. Lineweaver-Burke and Dixon plots indicated noncompetitive inhibition. Parathion and methylparathion induced enzyme inhibition occurred over a range of free calcium ion concentrations (0.5 to 5 mM); the inhibition was significantly greater at lower Ca2+ concentrations (1 to 100 uM) than at higher concentrations. The authors conclude that parathion and methylparathion inhibit ATPase activity by binding to a site on the enzyme rather than through an interaction with associated lipids. For more Mechanism of Action (Complete) data for METHYL PARATHION (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Mechanism of action

In an in vitro study of the mechanism of action of ethylene as a plant growth inhibitor, the effects of ethylene and some of its analogs, including propylene, on the oxidation of indole-3-acetic acid were examined. Ethylene and its analogs inhibited the oxidation of indole-3-acetic acid by peroxidase under conditions where the iron complex (compound III, an oxy-ferrous complex of peroxidase) shuttle was activated. Inhibition occurred only in the presence of the superoxide anion radical 02(-). Spectral and kinetic data indicated that ethylene and its analogs enhanced the rate of reaction of 02(-) with peroxidase; ie, the iron complex (compound III) shuttle, resulting in the formation of compound III. Propylene was a less effective inhibitor than ethylene.