JOVAPLASM C INACTIVATED VACCINE

Dosage

Children: Dosage varies based on the specific drug and its indication, consult specific drug monographs for detailed dosing information.

Adults: Dosage varies based on the specific drug and its indication, consult specific drug monographs for detailed dosing information.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action for a biotype depends on the specific drug or therapy being used and the biological characteristics of the biotype. Generally, drugs may target specific pathways or receptors that are more prevalent or uniquely mutated in certain biotypes, leading to tailored therapeutic strategies. For example, in oncology, targeted therapies may inhibit growth factor receptors or signaling pathways that are dysregulated in a particular biotype of cancer.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics refers to the effects of a drug on the body, including the relationship between drug concentration and effect. The pharmacodynamics of a drug may vary among different biotypes due to variations in receptor expression, enzyme activity, and downstream signaling pathways. This variability can influence the efficacy and safety profiles of medications, necessitating adjustments in treatment approaches based on the patient's biotype.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics involves the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs. Biotypes can influence pharmacokinetic parameters, such as how quickly a drug is absorbed or how it is metabolized. Genetic polymorphisms may affect enzyme activity involved in drug metabolism, leading to differences in drug clearance and half-life among individuals with different biotypes. These factors are essential for determining appropriate dosing regimens and minimizing adverse effects.

Pregnancy

The safety of biotype during pregnancy has not been established. Consult healthcare professionals before use.

Breast-feeding

It is unknown if biotype is excreted in human breast milk. Caution is advised when administering to breastfeeding women.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Bacterial skin infections
• Respiratory tract infections
• Urinary tract infections
• Bone and joint infections
• Soft tissue infections

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for paediatric dosing recommendations.

Adults: Refer to the specific product information or clinical guidelines for adult dosing.

Mechanism of action

Capricolum exhibits its antibacterial effect primarily by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. This is achieved through the interference with peptidoglycan cross-linking, which is essential for maintaining the structural integrity of bacterial cells. As a result, the bacteria are unable to withstand osmotic pressure, ultimately leading to cell lysis.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of capricolum indicate that it has a time-dependent killing effect against susceptible bacteria. Peak concentrations correlate with antibacterial activity, and its efficacy is influenced by the duration of exposure rather than the concentration alone. It demonstrates a broad spectrum of activity, particularly against Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria.

Pharmacokinetics

Capricolum is absorbed systemically after administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within a few hours. It is widely distributed throughout body tissues, including skin and lungs. The drug undergoes hepatic metabolism and is primarily excreted via the kidneys. The elimination half-life is variable and can be influenced by factors such as renal function. Dosing adjustments may be necessary in patients with compromised renal function.

Pregnancy

There is limited data on the safety of capricolum in pregnancy. Use only if clearly needed and the benefits outweigh the risks.

Breast-feeding

Limited information is available on the excretion of capricolum in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Caprine pneumonia
• Respiratory distress in goats
• Bacterial infections in caprine species

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific veterinary guidelines for dosing recommendations in juvenile goats.

Adults: Refer to specific veterinary guidelines for the appropriate dosing of antibiotics and anti-inflammatory agents used in the treatment of caprine pneumonia.

Mechanism of action

The specific mechanism of action of the agents used to treat caprine pneumonia varies depending on the medication. Antibiotics function by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, or nucleic acid synthesis, thereby eliminating the infectious agents causing pneumonia. Anti-inflammatory agents reduce inflammation in the lungs, improving respiratory function.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics will depend on the specific treatment used. For antibiotics, the pharmacodynamics include bactericidal or bacteriostatic effects against the pathogens involved in caprine pneumonia. Anti-inflammatory medications may exert their effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes, reducing prostaglandin synthesis, and thereby alleviating inflammation and pain.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics will vary by the specific drug administered. Generally, antibiotics are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, distributed throughout the body, metabolized primarily in the liver, and excreted through urine or feces. The half-life and elimination routes will differ based on the particular antibiotic or anti-inflammatory agent used.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

It is not known whether caprineumoniae is excreted in human milk. Caution should be exercised when administered to a nursing mother.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Nutritional supplementation
• Herbal therapy for various conditions
• Preservation of medicinal properties of plants

Dosage

Children: Dosage for dried herbal preparations in children should be approached cautiously and is best determined by a healthcare professional. Refer to paediatric guidelines for specific dosing recommendations.

Adults: Dosage for dried herbal preparations varies widely depending on the specific herb and its intended use. Refer to specific guidelines or reputable sources for dosing information.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action for dried herbal preparations varies depending on the specific plant material involved. Generally, the active constituents in dried herbs can exert their effects through various pathways, such as modulating neurotransmitter systems, influencing metabolic pathways, and acting on specific receptors in the body. For instance, flavonoids, terpenes, and alkaloids found in certain dried herbs can exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, or antimicrobial properties.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of dried drugs depend on their specific chemical constituents. These compounds can affect physiological functions, such as modulating inflammatory responses, enhancing immune function, or affecting neurotransmission. The effects can vary widely based on the type of herb, the method of drying, and the concentration of active ingredients.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of dried herbal preparations can vary significantly based on the specific herb used. Generally, after ingestion, the active compounds are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, metabolized primarily by the liver, and then excreted through urine or feces. The bioavailability of these compounds can be influenced by factors such as the form of the preparation (e.g., powder, extract), the presence of other food substances, and individual patient characteristics.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Consult a healthcare provider before use.

Breast-feeding

Consult a healthcare provider before use during breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Local anesthesia of mucous membranes
• Topical anesthesia in oral and nasal procedures
• Laryngeal anesthesia

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate paediatric dosing, as it is based on age and weight.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing guidance as it varies by indication and clinical scenario.

Mechanism of action

Cocaine produces anesthesia by reversibly binding to and inactivating sodium channels, which are essential for the depolarization and impulse propagation along nerve cells. Additionally, cocaine's blockade of norepinephrine reuptake leads to its vasoconstrictive effects. The drug also prevents the re-uptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine into pre-synaptic neurons, influencing neurotransmitter levels.

Pharmacodynamics

Cocaine is primarily indicated for the introduction of local anesthesia in accessible mucous membranes, including those of the oral, laryngeal, and nasal cavities. Its rapid onset of action and potent local anesthetic properties make it effective for short procedures requiring localized pain relief.

Pharmacokinetics

Cocaine is absorbed quickly through mucous membranes and has a short duration of action. It undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism, primarily by enzymes such as CYP3A4 and CYP2D6, producing metabolites that are then excreted in urine. The onset of anesthesia typically occurs within minutes, while the effects can last from 30 minutes to several hours, depending on the route of administration and dosage.

Contra-indications

• Hypersensitivity to cocaine or any of its components
• Severe hypertension
• Severe coronary artery disease
• History of arrhythmias

Adverse effects

• Cardiovascular disturbances (e.g., hypertension, tachycardia)
• CNS effects (e.g., anxiety, agitation, seizures)
• Local tissue necrosis at the injection site
• Allergic reactions (e.g., rash, anaphylaxis)

Interactions

• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) may enhance the effects of cocaine
• Other sympathomimetic drugs can increase cardiovascular effects
• Alcohol may potentiate the CNS effects of cocaine

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with a history of substance abuse
• Monitor blood pressure and heart rate during administration
• Avoid use in patients with significant hepatic impairment
• Consider potential for addiction and abuse

Pregnancy

Cocaine is contraindicated during pregnancy due to potential harm to the fetus, including risk of miscarriage, premature birth, and developmental issues.

Breast-feeding

Cocaine is excreted in breast milk and may pose a risk to nursing infants; breastfeeding should be avoided during and after use.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Topical solution for mucous membrane application
• Injection solution for local anesthesia

Indications

• Nutritional supplementation
• Dairy product alternatives for lactose-intolerant individuals
• Source of high-quality protein
• Culinary uses in various cuisines

Dosage

Children: Refer to dietary guidelines for recommended daily intake of goat products for children, which should be adjusted based on age and nutritional requirements.

Adults: Refer to dietary guidelines for recommended daily intake of goat products, which vary based on individual nutritional needs.

Mechanism of action

Goats primarily provide nutritional benefits through their milk, which contains proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. The bioactive compounds within goat milk can enhance gut health and may possess anti-inflammatory properties. Goat meat is a source of high-quality protein and essential amino acids necessary for growth and maintenance of body tissues.

Pharmacodynamics

The consumption of goat products can lead to various health benefits due to their unique nutrient profile. Goat milk, for instance, is easier to digest than cow's milk due to its smaller fat globules and different casein composition. The presence of medium-chain fatty acids in goat milk can assist in energy metabolism and may contribute to improved lipid profiles in consumers.

Pharmacokinetics

As a food source, the pharmacokinetics of goat products relate to digestion and absorption rather than traditional drug metabolism. Nutrients from goat milk and meat are absorbed primarily in the gastrointestinal tract, where they enter systemic circulation to exert their effects. The rate of absorption can be influenced by factors such as the presence of other foods, individual digestive health, and overall dietary habits.

Indications

• Prevention of infectious diseases
• Public health vaccination programs
• Immunization against specific pathogens such as measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis B, polio, and influenza

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific vaccine guidelines for pediatric populations, as doses vary by vaccine type and age.

Adults: Refer to specific vaccine guidelines for adult populations, as doses vary by vaccine type and health status.

Mechanism of action

Vaccines stimulate the immune system to recognize and fight specific pathogens. They achieve this by introducing antigens, which are substances that provoke an immune response, including the production of antibodies. The immune system creates a memory of these antigens, allowing for a quicker and more effective response upon subsequent exposure to the actual pathogen.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of immunization involves the activation of both the humoral and cellular immune responses. This leads to the production of specific antibodies and the differentiation of memory B and T cells, which provide long-lasting immunity. The timing and type of immune response can vary depending on the vaccine type, the route of administration, and the individual's previous exposure to the pathogen.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of vaccines can vary widely based on their formulation. Generally, vaccines are administered via intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, where they are absorbed into the bloodstream. The onset of immunity can occur within days to weeks, depending on the vaccine and the individual's immune response. The duration of immunity may vary, necessitating booster doses for certain vaccines to maintain protection.

Contra-indications

• Severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) to a component of the vaccine
• Moderate or severe acute illness
• History of severe allergic reaction to a prior dose of the vaccine

Adverse effects

• Injection site reactions (pain, redness, swelling)
• Fever
• Fatigue
• Headache
• Muscle pain
• Nausea
• Allergic reactions (in rare cases)

Interactions

• Immunosuppressive therapies may reduce vaccine effectiveness
• Concurrent administration of certain vaccines may be contraindicated or require specific intervals

Precautions

• Individuals with a history of seizure disorders should use caution
• Pregnant women should consult healthcare providers regarding specific vaccines
• Individuals with compromised immune systems should discuss options with a healthcare provider

Pregnancy

The safety of vaccines during pregnancy varies by vaccine; consult healthcare providers for guidance on specific vaccines.

Breast-feeding

Most vaccines are considered safe during breastfeeding; consult healthcare providers for specific recommendations.

Storage

Store vaccines according to manufacturer's guidelines, typically in a refrigerator at 2-8°C, protect from light.

Formulations

• Live attenuated vaccines
• Inactivated vaccines
• Subunit, recombinant, or conjugate vaccines

Indications

• Mycoplasma pneumonia
• Atypical pneumonia
• Respiratory tract infections
• Sinusitis
• Bronchitis
• Chronic cough

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific antibiotic guidelines as the dosage depends on the antibiotic chosen for treatment

Adults: Refer to specific antibiotic guidelines as the dosage depends on the antibiotic chosen for treatment.

Mechanism of action

Mycoplasma species, particularly Mycoplasma pneumoniae, adhere to the respiratory epithelial cells and disrupt normal cellular processes. They utilize surface proteins and lipids to anchor themselves to host cells, leading to cell damage through inflammatory responses. They do not produce toxins but can induce host immune responses that contribute to the pathogenicity of the infection.

Pharmacodynamics

Mycoplasma are unique bacteria that lack a cell wall, which makes them resistant to many common antibiotics, such as penicillins and cephalosporins. The treatment of infections caused by Mycoplasma typically involves the use of antibiotics that target protein synthesis, such as macrolides (e.g., azithromycin) or tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline). These antibiotics inhibit bacterial growth by disrupting essential processes within the bacteria, leading to cell death or stasis.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of antibiotics used to treat Mycoplasma infections can vary. For example, macrolides are well-absorbed orally and have good tissue penetration, allowing them to reach the site of infection effectively. They are metabolized in the liver and excreted primarily through bile. Tetracyclines also have good oral bioavailability and are distributed widely in body tissues, but should be avoided in children under 8 years due to potential effects on bone and tooth development. The half-lives of these antibiotics can range from several hours to a day, depending on the specific drug and patient factors.

Pregnancy

Mycoplasma infections should be treated with caution during pregnancy. The use of antibiotics may be necessary, but the choice of medication should consider safety profiles and potential risks to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised when treating Mycoplasma infections in breastfeeding individuals. Certain antibiotics may be excreted in breast milk, so a risk-benefit assessment is essential.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Specific conditions may vary depending on the antibiotic used for treatment.

Indications

• Vaccination against influenza
• Hepatitis A virus infection
• Poliomyelitis
• Rabies
• Japanese encephalitis

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific vaccine product guidelines for paediatric dosing, as it may vary based on age, type of inactivated vaccine, and vaccination schedule.

Adults: Refer to specific vaccine product guidelines for adult dosing, as it may vary based on the type of inactivated vaccine and the vaccination schedule.

Mechanism of action

Nactivated vaccines work by introducing inactivated viral particles into the body. These particles are recognized by the immune system as foreign, leading to the activation of immune responses. This includes the production of antibodies specific to the virus, which can neutralize the virus if encountered in the future. The immune memory created helps prevent future infections.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of nactivated vaccines involve the stimulation of both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Following vaccination, B cells produce antibodies that provide protection against the virus, while T cells may help eliminate infected cells. The protective effect typically develops within weeks after administration and can last for several years, depending on the specific vaccine and the individual's immune response.

Pharmacokinetics

Nactivated vaccines do not undergo traditional pharmacokinetic processes such as absorption and metabolism like conventional drugs. Instead, after administration, the inactivated virus particles are taken up by antigen-presenting cells, which process the antigens and present them to T cells. This initiates a cascade of immune responses. The duration of immunity can vary based on several factors including the vaccine type and the individual's immune status.

Pregnancy

The safety of inactivated vaccines during pregnancy varies with the specific vaccine. Generally, inactivated vaccines are considered safe during pregnancy as they do not contain live pathogens.

Breast-feeding

Inactivated vaccines are generally considered safe during breastfeeding, as they do not pose a risk to the nursing infant.

Storage

Inactivated vaccines should be stored according to the manufacturer's instructions, typically in a refrigerator at 2°C to 8°C. Do not freeze.

Dosage

Children: Refer to the specific preparation’s guidelines for paediatric dosing information.

Adults: Refer to the specific preparation’s guidelines for dosing information.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action varies widely depending on the specific active ingredients within the prepared formulation. Generally, these mechanisms involve interactions with biological targets such as receptors, enzymes, or cellular processes to elicit a desired therapeutic effect.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics of prepared substances depend on their active components. They may exhibit actions ranging from agonistic or antagonistic effects on receptors, modulation of enzyme activity, or alteration of cellular signaling pathways. The specific dynamics will determine the onset, intensity, and duration of therapeutic effects.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics involves the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of the drug. For prepared drugs, absorption can be influenced by the formulation type, with some forms being rapidly absorbed while others are designed for slow release. Distribution is often determined by the lipophilicity of the drug and its ability to cross biological membranes. Metabolism typically occurs in the liver, and excretion may happen through the kidneys or bile, depending on the drug's chemical properties.

Pregnancy

Safety in pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised. The effects on a nursing infant are unknown; consider the importance of the drug to the mother.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Ensure the container is tightly closed.

Indications

• Bacterial infections
• Viral infections
• Epidemiological studies
• Antibiotic resistance monitoring

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific antimicrobial treatment guidelines based on the strain identified and the infection site.

Adults: Refer to specific antimicrobial treatment guidelines based on the strain identified and the infection site.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action for a strain depends on the type of microorganism it represents. For pathogenic bacteria, the strain may produce toxins, evade the host's immune response, or possess resistance mechanisms that allow it to survive in the presence of antibiotics. For viruses, strains may exhibit mutations that alter their ability to infect host cells or evade antiviral therapies.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics in the context of strains involves the interaction between the strain and the host's immune system, as well as the effects of specific antimicrobial agents on the strain. These interactions can influence the efficacy of treatments and the development of resistance.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics is not directly applicable to strains themselves but rather to the drugs used to treat infections caused by specific strains. Factors such as absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of antimicrobial agents can vary depending on the strain's characteristics and the site of infection.

Pregnancy

There is limited information on the safety of strain in pregnancy. It is advisable to consult healthcare professionals for guidance.

Breast-feeding

Safety during breastfeeding is not well established. It is recommended to seek medical advice before use.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture. Keep out of reach of children.

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific pediatric dosing guidelines as this varies based on the formulation, age, and weight of the child.

Adults: Refer to specific prescribing information for the exact dosage, as this varies widely depending on the formulation and intended use.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action varies widely depending on the specific drug classified as 'subsp'. Typically, these agents may act through various pathways such as receptor modulation, enzyme inhibition, or altering neurotransmitter levels to achieve their therapeutic effects. A detailed mechanism would require specific information about the active substance.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics involves the study of the effects of the drug on biological systems. Subsp may have pharmacodynamic properties that include agonistic or antagonistic actions at specific receptors, modulation of enzyme activity, or effects on ion channels. The exact pharmacodynamic profile would depend on the specific agent being discussed.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics of subsp would involve the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of the drug. These parameters can vary greatly with different formulations and active ingredients, affecting the onset and duration of action. Key factors include bioavailability, half-life, volume of distribution, and clearance rates, which would need to be defined based on the specific substance.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

It is unknown whether this drug is excreted in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to breastfeeding women.

Storage

Store at room temperature, protected from light and moisture. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Prevention of infectious diseases such as measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis B, influenza, and human papillomavirus (HPV)
• Travel vaccinations for diseases endemic to certain regions
• Vaccination for at-risk populations, such as those with compromised immune systems or specific occupational exposures

Dosage

Children: Dosage varies by vaccine type and age; refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing information.

Adults: Dosage varies by vaccine type and indication; refer to specific guidelines for each vaccine.

Mechanism of action

Vaccines work by mimicking an infection. They introduce a harmless component of a pathogen (antigen) to the immune system, prompting the body to produce an immune response. This includes the generation of antibodies and memory cells that provide long-term immunity. Upon subsequent exposure to the actual pathogen, the immune system is primed to respond more rapidly and effectively.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of vaccines involves the activation of both humoral and cellular immunity. Vaccines stimulate B cells to produce antibodies against the pathogen, while T cells are activated to destroy infected cells. This dual response helps to establish immunological memory, which enables a faster and more robust response upon re-exposure to the pathogen.

Pharmacokinetics

Vaccines are administered via various routes, including intramuscular, subcutaneous, and oral. After administration, the antigens are presented to antigen-presenting cells, which activate T cells and stimulate B cell proliferation and differentiation. The half-life of vaccine-induced immunity varies depending on the type of vaccine, with some providing lifelong immunity and others requiring booster doses to maintain protection.

Contra-indications

• Severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) to a component of the vaccine
• Severe immunocompromised state for live attenuated vaccines

Adverse effects

• Local reactions at the injection site (pain, redness, swelling)
• Fever
• Fatigue
• Headache
• Muscle pain
• Joint pain
• Nausea

Interactions

• Immunosuppressive medications may reduce vaccine efficacy
• Concurrent administration of some vaccines may require spacing to optimize immune response

Precautions

• History of allergic reactions to vaccines or vaccine components
• Pregnancy (specific vaccines may be contraindicated)
• Moderate to severe acute illness with or without fever

Pregnancy

Consult healthcare provider. Some vaccines are contraindicated during pregnancy, while others are recommended.

Breast-feeding

Generally considered safe, but consult healthcare provider regarding specific vaccines.

Storage

Store in a refrigerator at 2-8°C. Do not freeze. Protect from light.

Formulations

• Liquid suspension for injection
• Lyophilized powder for reconstitution

Mechanism of action

Cocaine produces anesthesia by inhibiting excitation of nerve endings or by blocking conduction in peripheral nerves. This is achieved by reversibly binding to and inactivating sodium channels. Sodium influx through these channels is necessary for the depolarization of nerve cell membranes and subsequent propagation of impulses along the course of the nerve. Cocaine is the only local anesthetic with vasoconstrictive properties. This is a result of its blockade of norepinephrine reuptake in the autonomic nervous system. Cocaine binds differentially to the dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transport proteins and directly prevents the re-uptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine into pre-synaptic neurons. Its effect on dopamine levels is most responsible for the addictive property of cocaine. The presence and function of cannabinoid CB(2) receptors in the brain have been the subjects of much debate. /The investigators/ found that systemic, intranasal or intra-accumbens local administration of JWH133, a selective CB(2) receptor agonist, dose-dependently inhibited intravenous cocaine self-administration, cocaine-enhanced locomotion, and cocaine-enhanced accumbens extracellular dopamine in wild-type and CB(1) receptor knockout (CB(1)(-/-), also known as Cnr1(-/-)) mice, but not in CB(2)(-/-) (Cnr2(-/-)) mice. This inhibition was mimicked by GW405833, another CB(2) receptor agonist with a different chemical structure, and was blocked by AM630, a selective CB(2) receptor antagonist. Intra-accumbens administration of JWH133 alone dose-dependently decreased, whereas intra-accumbens administration of AM630 elevated, extracellular dopamine and locomotion in wild-type and CB(1)(-/-) mice, but not in CB(2)(-/-) mice. Intra-accumbens administration of AM630 also blocked the reduction in cocaine self-administration and extracellular dopamine produced by systemic administration of JWH133. These findings suggest that brain CB(2) receptors modulate cocaine's rewarding and locomotor-stimulating effects, likely by a dopamine-dependent mechanism. Cocaine hydrochloride is a local anesthetic which blocks initiation or conduction of nerve impulses following local application; when applied topically to mucous membranes, the drug also produces intense vasoconstriction. When applied topically to the mucous membranes of the nose or mouth, cocaine reduces the acuity of smell or taste, respectively. Cocaine exerts an indirect adrenergic effect by interfering with the uptake of norepinephrine by adrenergic nerve terminals, and therefore potentiates the effects of catecholamines. The indirect adrenergic effect is apparently the mechanism by which the drug produces vasoconstriction and mydriasis. Cocaine has CNS stimulating effects. The drug is also markedly pyrogenic, augmenting heat production by stimulating muscular activity and decreasing heat loss through vasoconstriction. Cocaine has multiple central and peripheral pharmacological actions. The action responsible for the rewarding property, and hence the abuse liability, of cocaine is an action in the dopaminergic synapse; in the rat the major set of critical dopaminergic synapses appears to be in the nucleus accumbens. Cocaine prolongs the activity of dopamine in the synapse by blocking the dopamine reuptake mechanism (which usually inactivates the transmitter by removing it from the proximity of its synaptic targets). This is an action shared with amphetamine; in addition to blocking the dopamine reuptake mechanism, amphetamine also augments dopaminergic function by augmenting dopamine release directly into the synapse. While amphetamine and cocaine have discriminable subjective effects, perhaps due to differences in rate of onset and metabolism or perhaps due to different side effects, cocaine shares its rewarding impact and abuse liability very closely with amphetamine. When drug access is unlimited, cocaine and amphetamine have the same ability to dominate behavior, reducing other beha

Pharmacodynamics

Cocaine is a local anesthetic indicated for the introduction of local (topical) anesthesia of accessible mucous membranes of the oral, laryngeal and nasal cavities.