Ovacare capsules

Mechanism of action

Cyanocobalamin serves as a cofactor for methionine synthase and L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase enzymes. Methionine synthase is essential for the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines that form DNA. L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase is involved in the degradation of propionate, crucial for fat and protein metabolism. The lack of vitamin B12 results in the accumulation of methylmalonyl CoA, contributing to neurological manifestations. Additionally, it is vital for the synthesis of methionine from homocysteine, and its deficiency can lead to functional folate deficiency, which impacts red blood cell formation.

Pharmacodynamics

Cyanocobalamin corrects vitamin B12 deficiency and alleviates symptoms and laboratory abnormalities associated with pernicious anemia, such as megaloblastic indices, gastrointestinal lesions, and neurological damage. It is essential for growth, cell reproduction, hematopoiesis, nucleoprotein, and myelin synthesis. The drug significantly impacts fat and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as protein synthesis. Rapidly dividing cells, such as those in the bone marrow, have a high demand for vitamin B12. Parenteral administration of cyanocobalamin can quickly reverse the anemia and gastrointestinal symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency, while also preventing the progression of related neurological damage.

Pharmacokinetics

Cyanocobalamin is absorbed in the intestine, primarily in the ileum, via specific transport mechanisms that may be impaired in individuals with intrinsic factor deficiency (as seen in pernicious anemia). Once absorbed, it is widely distributed in body tissues, with significant concentrations found in the liver, kidneys, and heart. The vitamin is stored in the liver, where it can be released into circulation as needed. Cyanocobalamin undergoes conversion to its active forms, methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin, which are utilized in various metabolic processes. The elimination half-life is variable, but it is generally excreted via urine as metabolites

Adverse effects

• Abdominal distension
• Decreased appetite
• Flatulence
• Nausea

Interactions

• Folic acid may interact with cyanocobalamin, especially in cases of megaloblastic anemia caused by folate deficiency.

Precautions

• Should not be given alone for pernicious anemia.
• Use caution in patients with Leber's disease, as it may worsen optic atrophy.

Pregnancy

Cyanocobalamin is essential during pregnancy as it helps prevent neural tube defects. It is advised that females of childbearing potential take 5 mg of folic acid daily before conception and throughout pregnancy.

Breast-feeding

Cyanocobalamin is generally considered safe during breastfeeding, but it is advised to monitor the infant for any adverse effects.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight. Protect from moisture.

Formulations

• Tablet: 1000 micrograms
• Tablet: 500 micrograms
• Tablet: 100 micrograms
• Oral solution: 50 micrograms per ml
• Solution for injection: 1000 micrograms per ml

Indications

• Vitamin B6 deficiency
• Isoniazid-induced neuropathy (prophylaxis and treatment)
• Idiopathic sideroblastic anaemia
• Prevention of penicillamine-induced neuropathy in Wilson's disease
• Metabolic diseases such as cystathioninuria and homocystinuria
• Premenstrual syndrome

Mechanism of action

Pyridoxine hydrochloride is converted in the body to pyridoxal phosphate, which is the active form of vitamin B6. It serves as a cofactor for more than 100 enzymatic reactions, particularly those involved in the metabolism of amino acids, the synthesis of neurotransmitters (such as serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid), and the production of hemoglobin. Its role in neurotransmitter synthesis makes it crucial for normal brain function and mood regulation.

Pharmacodynamics

Pyridoxine hydrochloride exerts its effects by facilitating the conversion of amino acids into neurotransmitters and is involved in the synthesis of heme. It impacts the metabolism of tryptophan to serotonin and is essential for the production of norepinephrine and gamma-aminobutyric acid, which are vital for proper neurological function. Deficiency of vitamin B6 can lead to neurological symptoms, including peripheral neuropathy and cognitive disturbances.

Pharmacokinetics

Pyridoxine hydrochloride is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. It is primarily metabolized in the liver, where it is converted to its active form, pyridoxal phosphate. The elimination half-life of pyridoxine is approximately 15-20 days, and it is excreted primarily through the urine. Renal impairment may affect the metabolism and excretion of pyridoxine, necessitating dose adjustments.

Contra-indications

• Hyperkalaemia
• Severe liver damage

Adverse effects

• Peripheral neuritis
• Hepatitis
• Hypoglycaemia
• Urine discolouration

Interactions

• Potassium aminobenzoate
• Isoniazid

Precautions

• Caution in renal impairment (increased risk of hyperkalaemia)
• Interrupt treatment during periods of low food intake (such as fasting, anorexia, and nausea) to reduce risk of hypoglycaemia
• Monitor liver function tests monthly during high-dose therapy

Pregnancy

Manufacturer advises avoiding use in pregnancy due to potential risk of birth defects; however, no adverse effects have been reported at normal dietary levels.

Breast-feeding

Theoretical risk of toxicity in infants if mothers take large doses.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Pyridoxine hydrochloride 10 mg tablets
• Pyridoxine hydrochloride 20 mg tablets
• Pyridoxine hydrochloride 50 mg tablets
• Pyridoxine hydrochloride oral solution 20 mg per 1 ml

Indications

• Papulopustular rosacea
• Inflammatory acne vulgaris

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing recommendations.

Adults: For papulopustular rosacea, apply daily for up to 4 months. The treatment course may be repeated; discontinue if no improvement is observed after 3 months. For inflammatory acne vulgaris, apply twice daily, reduced to once daily or alternate days if irritation occurs.

Mechanism of action

Nicotinamide exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enhancing the barrier function of the skin. It is also involved in the NAD salvage pathway, which is essential for maintaining cellular energy levels and promoting cell repair mechanisms. Additionally, nicotinamide contributes to the synthesis of coenzymes involved in metabolic processes, including the conversion of niacin into NAD+.

Pharmacodynamics

Nicotinamide is known for its ability to improve skin hydration and reduce transepidermal water loss. It has been shown to decrease the appearance of acne lesions and rosacea by modulating inflammatory responses and accelerating cell turnover. Its antioxidant properties also help to protect the skin from oxidative stress and UV damage.

Pharmacokinetics

When applied topically, nicotinamide is absorbed through the skin layers, with minimal systemic absorption. Its peak plasma concentrations are generally low, and the drug has a half-life that varies depending on the route of administration. The metabolism of nicotinamide occurs primarily in the liver, where it is converted into its active forms, including NAD+. The elimination route is via the kidneys, with metabolites excreted in urine.

Contra-indications

• Pregnancy
• Severe acne involving large areas
• Severe skin reactions

Adverse effects

• Sunburn
• Skin reactions (common or very common)
• Cheilitis
• Eyelid oedema
• Flushing
• Dry skin
• Eye irritation
• Photosensitivity reactions
• Transient skin pigmentation changes

Interactions

• Clindamycin
• Topical retinoids
• Abrasive cleaners
• Comedogenic cosmetics

Precautions

• Avoid exposure to UV light, including sunlight and sunlamps
• Wash hands immediately after use
• Avoid contact with eyes and mucous membranes
• Use moisturizers to reduce the risk of skin irritation
• Discontinue treatment if severe irritation occurs

Pregnancy

Avoid use during pregnancy due to potential risks, as limited information is available regarding toxicity.

Breast-feeding

Amount of drug in milk after topical application is probably too small to be harmful; ensure infant does not come in contact with treated areas.

Storage

Store at room temperature away from moisture and light.

Formulations

• Cream
• Gel

Indications

• Vitamin C deficiency
• Scurvy
• Adjunct therapy in iron overload conditions

Dosage

Children: Child 1 month–3 years: 125–250 mg daily in 1–2 divided doses; Child 4–11 years: 250–500 mg daily in 1–2 divided doses; Child 12–17 years: 0.5–1 g daily in 1–2 divided doses.

Adults: 500 mg daily, taken in 1-2 divided doses, depending on the clinical condition and dietary needs.

Mechanism of action

Ascorbic acid functions primarily as a reducing agent, facilitating enzymatic reactions in the body, including the hydroxylation of proline and lysine in collagen synthesis. It also plays a role in the absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract and enhances the immune response.

Pharmacodynamics

Ascorbic acid is crucial for the maintenance of connective tissue and is involved in the metabolism of several amino acids. Its antioxidant properties help to mitigate oxidative stress and may play a role in reducing the risk of chronic diseases.

Pharmacokinetics

Ascorbic acid is absorbed in the intestines and is widely distributed throughout the body. The renal clearance of ascorbic acid is dose-dependent, with higher doses leading to increased excretion. The half-life varies but is generally around 15 to 30 minutes in healthy individuals, with tissue saturation levels influencing its retention.

Contra-indications

• Hypercalcaemia
• Hyperoxaluria
• Patients with cardiac dysfunction

Adverse effects

• Abdominal pain
• Headache
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhoea
• Constipation
• Weight loss
• Polyuria
• Sweating
• Thirst
• Vertigo

Interactions

• Increases risk of cardiovascular adverse effects with iron chelators
• Increases risk of cardiovascular adverse effects with deferiprone
• Increases risk of cardiovascular adverse effects with desferrioxamine

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with iron overload
• Monitor for symptoms of overdose

Pregnancy

High doses teratogenic in animals but therapeutic doses unlikely to be harmful.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Ascorbic acid 50 mg tablets
• Ascorbic acid 100 mg tablets
• Ascorbic acid 200 mg tablets
• Ascorbic acid 250 mg tablets
• Ascorbic acid 500 mg capsules

Indications

• Selenium deficiency
• Supportive therapy in conditions requiring antioxidant support
• Potential adjunct in cancer prevention strategies

Dosage

Children: Refer to BNF for Children for specific dosing information.

Adults: Initially 100–500 micrograms daily, adjusted according to response and serum levels.

Mechanism of action

Selenium is metabolized to selenophosphate and selenocysteine, which are essential for the synthesis of selenoproteins. This process involves the incorporation of selenium into proteins through a specialized tRNA that recognizes the RNA sequence UGA, which is facilitated by SECIS structures and SBP-2 proteins. Key selenoproteins, like glutathione peroxidases, help protect cells from oxidative damage, thus playing a significant role in reducing the risk of diseases such as atherosclerosis and certain cancers.

Pharmacodynamics

Selenium is incorporated into various selenoproteins that perform essential functions, including antioxidant activity, redox balance, and regulation of thyroid hormones. Its role in antioxidant defense mechanisms is particularly important for protecting cells against reactive oxygen species (ROS). Selenium supplementation has been linked to improved immune function and potential cancer prevention.

Pharmacokinetics

Selenium is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract, and its bioavailability can vary based on the source and form of selenium. Once absorbed, it is distributed to various tissues, where it is incorporated into selenoproteins. Selenium is primarily excreted through urine, and its half-life can depend on dietary intake and individual metabolism. Selenium status can be assessed through blood levels of selenoproteins and selenium itself.

Adverse effects

• Nausea
• Anaemia
• Aplastic anaemia
• Skin reactions
• Gastrointestinal disorders

Precautions

• Selenium supplementation should not be given unless there is good evidence of deficiency.
• Use caution in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to selenium or its compounds.

Pregnancy

Limited information is available regarding selenium supplementation during pregnancy. Consult specialist sources for guidance.

Breast-feeding

Limited information is available; the effect of selenium on copper levels in milk is conflicting, and its impact on the infant is unknown.

Storage

After opening, store in a refrigerator (2–8°C).

Formulations

• Tablets (e.g., L-Selenomethionine 200 micrograms, SelenoPrecise 100 micrograms)
• Capsules (e.g., Trientine dihydrochloride 250 mg)
• Injection solutions (e.g., Sodium selenite 50 micrograms per 1 ml)

Indications

• Vitamin B1 deficiency
• Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
• Beriberi
• Isoniazid-induced neuropathy (prophylaxis and treatment)
• Severe depletion or malabsorption of vitamins B and C

Dosage

Adults: For vitamin deficiency: 25–100 mg daily. For severe deficiency: 200–300 mg daily in divided doses. For

Mechanism of action

Thiamine functions primarily as a precursor for several phosphorylated active forms, which act as coenzymes in metabolic pathways. It reduces intracellular protein glycation by redirecting glycolytic flux and supports the synthesis of nucleic acids necessary for cell survival and proliferation. Additionally, thiamine has been shown to inhibit glucose-induced proliferation of endothelial cells, thus possibly playing a role in the modulation of vascular health.

Pharmacodynamics

Thiamine exhibits antioxidant properties and contributes to erythropoiesis, cognitive function, and mood regulation. It has protective effects against oxidative stress, particularly in neuronal tissues, where deficiency can lead to neuronal death due to increased free radical production. Thiamine also modulates glucose metabolism, influencing smooth muscle cell proliferation and potentially impacting the progression of atherosclerosis.

Pharmacokinetics

Thiamine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, primarily in the jejunum, and is distributed throughout the body, with higher concentrations found in the liver, heart, and brain. It is excreted in urine, and its half-life is relatively short. The vitamin is converted into active forms within tissues, including thiamine diphosphate (TDP), which is the coenzyme form involved in carbohydrate metabolism. The body does not store significant amounts of thiamine, making regular dietary intake essential.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions
• Anaphylaxis (rare)
• Gastrointestinal disturbances

Precautions

• Facilities for treating anaphylaxis should be available when parenteral thiamine is administered
• Use with caution in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to thiamine

Pregnancy

Thiamine crosses the placenta but no adverse effects have been reported. Information regarding high doses is limited.

Breast-feeding

Severely thiamine-deficient mothers should avoid breast-feeding as thiamine is present in breast milk.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Thiamine hydrochloride 20 mg/ml oral solution
• Thiamine hydrochloride 50 mg tablets
• Thiamine hydrochloride 100 mg modified-release tablets
• Thiamine hydrochloride oral suspension

Indications

• Sunscreen and UV protection
• Topical treatment for skin disorders
• Adjunct in the treatment of certain types of anemia
• Potential therapeutic use in fibrotic conditions

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific guidelines and consult a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing information.

Adults: Refer to specific guidelines and consult a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing information.

Mechanism of action

Aminobenzoic acid acts as a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthase, which is involved in the synthesis of folate. By inhibiting this enzyme, PABA disrupts the production of folate, which is essential for DNA synthesis and cell division. This mechanism underlies its use in certain therapeutic applications, including skin protection and potential therapeutic effects in anemia.

Pharmacodynamics

Aminobenzoic acid exhibits its pharmacological effects primarily through its role in folate metabolism. It is thought to enhance the synthesis of folate in the body, which is crucial for the production of nucleic acids and amino acids. Furthermore, due to its UV-absorbing properties, PABA can provide a protective effect against UV-induced skin damage. Its safety profile is generally well-tolerated, although allergic reactions may occur in some individuals.

Pharmacokinetics

Aminobenzoic acid is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract when taken orally. It undergoes hepatic metabolism and is excreted primarily in the urine. The half-life of PABA is variable, depending on the route of administration and individual patient metabolism. Topically applied PABA is quickly absorbed into the skin, where it exerts its effects locally.

Adverse effects

• Hypersensitivity reactions
• Skin rashes
• Gastrointestinal disturbances

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with known hypersensitivity to para-aminobenzoic acid or related compounds
• Monitor for allergic reactions during therapy

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised. The effects on the nursing infant are unknown.

Storage

Store in a well-closed container, protected from light and moisture.

Formulations

• Topical cream
• Oral tablet
• Injection solution

Indications

• Vitamin D deficiency
• Rickets
• Osteomalacia
• Osteoporosis
• Hypoparathyroidism

Dosage

Adults: The usual adult dose for vitamin D deficiency is 800 to 2000 IU daily, depending on the severity of deficiency and clinical condition. Higher doses may be used under medical supervision.

Mechanism of action

Cholecalciferol is converted to its active forms, 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the liver and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in the kidneys. These metabolites enhance the intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus, increase serum calcium levels, and mobilize these minerals from bone. This process is regulated by parathyroid hormone, which influences calcium and phosphate metabolism, particularly in the kidneys.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of cholecalciferol involve its conversion to active metabolites that play a significant role in calcium and phosphorus homeostasis. The metabolites facilitate intestinal absorption of these minerals, promote bone mineralization, and influence renal reabsorption. The onset of action occurs within 10 to 24 hours following administration, as metabolic activation is required for its biological effects.

Pharmacokinetics

Cholecalciferol is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, and its absorption is enhanced by the presence of dietary fats. It is transported in the bloodstream bound to vitamin D-binding protein. Once in the liver, it undergoes hydroxylation to form 25-hydroxyvitamin D, which is further converted in the kidneys to the active form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. The elimination half-life of cholecalciferol varies, typically spanning several days, and it is primarily excreted in bile and urine.

Adverse effects

• Hypercalcemia
• Hypercalciuria
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Constipation
• Weakness
• Fatigue

Interactions

• May enhance the effects of thiazide diuretics, leading to increased risk of hypercalcemia
• Anticonvulsants may increase metabolism of vitamin D, leading to reduced effectiveness
• Cholestyramine may reduce absorption of vitamin D

Precautions

• Monitor serum calcium levels in patients with renal impairment
• Caution in patients with a history of hypercalcemia or hyperparathyroidism
• Use with caution in patients taking other medications that affect calcium metabolism

Pregnancy

Cholecalciferol can be used during pregnancy if indicated, as vitamin D is essential for fetal bone development.

Breast-feeding

Cholecalciferol is excreted in breast milk, but is generally considered safe during breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Capsules
• Tablets
• Liquid formulations

Indications

• Type 2 diabetes mellitus
• Insulin resistance
• Impaired glucose tolerance
• Metabolic syndrome
• Hyperlipidemia

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosage recommendations suitable for pediatric patients.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosage recommendations based on the condition being treated.

Mechanism of action

Chromium enhances insulin signaling by upregulating insulin receptor-mediated pathways. It affects downstream effector molecules after insulin binds to its receptor, leading to the activation of phosphatidylinositol 2-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase B (Akt). This process promotes the translocation of glucose transporter-4 (Glut4) to the cell membrane, facilitating increased glucose uptake. Additionally, chromium can promote GLUT-4 transporter translocation independently of insulin receptor activity under insulin-resistant conditions and aids in cholesterol efflux by increasing membrane fluidity.

Pharmacodynamics

Trivalent chromium is essential for the glucose tolerance factor, which activates insulin-mediated pathways. It enhances insulin binding to cells, increases the density of insulin receptors, and activates insulin receptor kinase, all of which contribute to improved insulin sensitivity. Chromium deficiency can lead to impaired glucose metabolism, and supplementation can normalize glucose tolerance in individuals exhibiting diabetic-like characteristics due to deficiency.

Pharmacokinetics

Chromium absorption occurs primarily in the intestines, but its bioavailability is influenced by various dietary factors, such as the presence of other minerals and vitamins. The mineral is transported in the bloodstream bound to transferrin and is predominantly stored in the liver, spleen, and bone. The elimination of chromium occurs mainly through urine, with small amounts excreted in feces. The half-life and exact metabolic pathways for chromium can vary based on its form and the individual's nutritional status.

Pregnancy

Chromium is generally considered safe during pregnancy when taken in appropriate amounts, but it is advisable to consult a healthcare provider.

Breast-feeding

Chromium is excreted in breast milk, and while it is deemed safe in moderate amounts, consultation with a healthcare provider is recommended.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Copper deficiency
• Occipital Horn Syndrome
• Menke's disease
• Contraception (via copper IUD)

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing information.

Adults: Refer to the relevant clinical guidelines and BNF for specific dosing information.

Mechanism of action

Copper is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract via high affinity copper uptake proteins and low affinity copper uptake proteins, likely being reduced to the Cu1+ form prior to transport. Inside enterocytes, it binds to the copper transport protein ATOX1, which facilitates its transport to copper transporting ATPase-1 on the Golgi membrane for incorporation into the Golgi apparatus. Once in systemic circulation, copper binds primarily to ceruloplasmin, albumin, and alpha 2-macroglobulin. It acts as a cofactor in a variety of oxidase enzymes and also influences sperm motility when released from copper IUDs, contributing to its contraceptive effect.

Pharmacodynamics

Copper is essential for the activity of many enzymes and plays a vital role in processes such as iron metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, and antioxidant defense. Copper ions, particularly when released from intrauterine devices, have been shown to decrease sperm viability, thereby impacting fertility.

Pharmacokinetics

Copper is absorbed from the gut and is predominantly transported in the plasma bound to proteins such as ceruloplasmin and albumin. The absorption efficiency can vary; however, a significant portion of dietary copper is usually absorbed. The body regulates copper levels through hepatic excretion and storage mechanisms, ensuring homeostasis. Excess copper can lead to toxicity, while deficiency results in various health issues.

Pregnancy

Copper is considered essential during pregnancy, but excessive intake should be avoided due to potential toxicity.

Breast-feeding

Copper is excreted in breast milk, and adequate maternal intake is important for infant development.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from moisture and heat.

Indications

• Malabsorption syndromes
• Crohn's disease
• Cystic fibrosis
• Short bowel syndrome
• Severe food allergies
• Inability to meet nutritional needs through standard diets

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific formulations for dosing, as paediatric dosages depend on the product and the child's nutritional needs.

Adults: Refer to specific formulations for dosing, as adult dosages vary based on the product used and the patient's nutritional requirements.

Mechanism of action

Elemental formulations provide nutrients in their simplest forms, which are readily absorbed in the small intestine. This bypasses complex digestive processes, making them suitable for individuals with compromised digestion or absorption capabilities. The nutrients in these formulations include amino acids, simple carbohydrates, and fatty acids, which can be directly utilized by the body's metabolic pathways.

Pharmacodynamics

Elemental formulations help restore nutritional balance by supplying essential macronutrients and micronutrients needed for metabolic processes. They support growth, maintain energy levels, and promote healing in patients with malabsorption or increased nutritional needs. The bioavailability of nutrients in elemental forms is typically high, allowing for efficient uptake and utilization by the body.

Pharmacokinetics

Following administration, elemental nutrients are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, primarily in the jejunum and ileum. The rate of absorption can vary based on the specific formulation and the individual's gastrointestinal health. Once absorbed, these nutrients enter systemic circulation and are transported to various tissues for utilization in metabolic processes. The elimination of unabsorbed nutrients occurs primarily through feces.

Adverse effects

• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Constipation
• Stomach cramps
• Dark stools
• Metallic taste
• Allergic reactions

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with a history of gastrointestinal disorders.
• Monitor for signs of iron overload in patients receiving multiple iron products.
• Assess for the need for supplementation in patients with conditions causing malabsorption.

Pregnancy

Iron is essential during pregnancy, but supplementation should be guided by clinical need and under healthcare supervision.

Breast-feeding

Iron is excreted in breast milk; supplementation may be necessary depending on maternal iron status.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Oral tablets
• Liquid formulations
• Injectable solutions

Indications

• Folate deficiency
• Megaloblastic anemia
• Prevention of neural tube defects in pregnancy
• Supplementation in patients on certain medications (e.g., methotrexate)

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate pa

Adults: Refer to specific guidelines or the BNF for appropriate adult dosing based on the indication.

Mechanism of action

Folate functions as a coenzyme in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine, a process that is vital for DNA synthesis and repair. It is involved in the one-carbon metabolism pathway, where it acts as a carrier of one-carbon units necessary for the synthesis of purines and thymidylate, thus supporting the production of nucleotides and DNA. This mechanism is particularly important in rapidly dividing cells.

Pharmacodynamics

Folate is critical for the formation of red blood cells and the proper functioning of the nervous system. It aids in the production of nucleic acids, which are essential for cell proliferation. Folate deficiency can lead to impaired DNA synthesis, resulting in megaloblastic anemia characterized by the presence of large, immature red blood cells in the bloodstream. Adequate folate levels are also associated with reduced risk of neural tube defects in developing fetuses.

Pharmacokinetics

Folate is absorbed in the proximal part of the small intestine, primarily in the jejunum, and is transported in the bloodstream bound to plasma proteins. It undergoes hepatic metabolism and is stored mainly in the liver. The elimination half-life varies, but dietary folate can be retained in the body for several weeks. Excess folate is excreted through the urine. The bioavailability of folate from food sources is lower compared to synthetic folic acid found in supplements.

Interactions

• folates+fluorouracil: Severe (increases risk of toxicity)
• folates+antiepileptics: Moderate (decreases concentration)
• folates+fosphenytoin: Moderate (decreases concentration)
• folates+phenobarbital: Moderate (decreases concentration)
• folates+phenytoin: Moderate (decreases concentration)
• folates+primidone: Moderate (decreases concentration)
• sulfasalazine+folates: Unknown (decreases absorption)

Pregnancy

Folate is essential for fetal development and is often recommended to prevent neural tube defects.

Breast-feeding

Folate is generally safe during breastfeeding, as it is important for both maternal and infant health.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Tablets
• Injection

Indications

• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
• Generalized anxiety disorder
• Depression
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder
• Insulin resistance

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate dosing guidelines for paediatric patients.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing recommendations, as doses may vary based on the condition being treated.

Mechanism of action

Inositol functions primarily as a precursor for the synthesis of phosphoinositides, which are key components of cell membranes. These phosphoinositides are involved in various intracellular signaling pathways, particularly those mediated by G-protein coupled receptors. Inositol also influences the action of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and has been shown to enhance insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism.

Pharmacodynamics

Inositol has been observed to have mood-stabilizing effects and may improve insulin sensitivity. Its role in cell signaling impacts various physiological processes, including cellular communication and metabolic regulation. The therapeutic effects of inositol in psychiatric conditions may be attributed to its ability to modulate neurotransmitter systems, particularly involving serotonin and dopamine.

Pharmacokinetics

Inositol is well-absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma levels occurring within 1 to 2 hours after ingestion. It is distributed throughout the body and can cross the blood-brain barrier. Inositol is predominantly excreted in the urine, with a half-life that varies based on dosage and individual metabolism. Metabolism occurs primarily through dephosphorylation to form various inositol phosphates.

Pregnancy

Inositol is generally considered safe during pregnancy but should be used under medical supervision.

Breast-feeding

Inositol is likely safe during breastfeeding, but consult a healthcare provider for specific recommendations.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Powder
• Capsules

Indications

• Iodine deficiency
• Goiter
• Hypothyroidism
• Thyroiditis
• Fibrocystic breast disease

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate dosing guidelines based on age and weight.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for appropriate dosing guidelines based on condition and clinical judgment.

Mechanism of action

Molecular iodine inhibits the induction and promotion of carcinogenesis in mammary tissues and has shown beneficial effects in fibrocystic breast disease. It temporarily decreases thyroid hormone production through the acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect, followed by a return to normal hormone synthesis due to down regulation of the sodium-iodide symport. This mechanism can lead to a transient hypothyroid state in some individuals with underlying thyroid conditions.

Pharmacodynamics

Iodine is vital for the synthesis of thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). It affects the metabolism of amine-derived hormones and plays a role in amino acid metabolism. The acute excess of iodide can lead to decreased circulating levels of T4 and T3 in susceptible individuals, while most people can escape this effect and maintain normal thyroid function.

Pharmacokinetics

Iodine is absorbed primarily in the gastrointestinal tract and is distributed throughout the body, particularly in the thyroid gland, where it is concentrated for hormone synthesis. The kidney plays a significant role in the excretion of excess iodine. The half-life of iodine in the body varies and can be influenced by dietary intake and underlying health conditions.

Adverse effects

• Hypothyroidism
• Hyperthyroidism
• Iodine allergy
• Gastrointestinal disturbances

Interactions

• Thyroid hormones
• Antithyroid drugs
• Lithium
• Diuretics

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with thyroid dysfunction
• Monitor thyroid function periodically during treatment
• Pregnant or breastfeeding women should consult a healthcare provider before use

Pregnancy

Iodine is essential for fetal thyroid hormone synthesis, but excessive iodine intake should be avoided.

Breast-feeding

Iodine is excreted in breast milk; consult a healthcare provider regarding supplementation.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light.

Formulations

• Iodine solution
• Iodine tincture
• Potassium iodide tablets

Indications

• Cardiovascular diseases
• Erectile dysfunction
• Peripheral arterial disease
• Wound healing
• Muscle growth and recovery
• Immune system support

Dosage

Children: For paediatric dosing, it is important to refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate guidelines based on the child's age, weight, and clinical condition.

Adults: The typical dosage for adults varies based on the condition being treated, but common oral doses range from 2 to 30 grams per day, divided into multiple doses. For specific dosing recommendations, please refer to the BNF.

Mechanism of action

L-arginine is converted to nitric oxide by nitric oxide synthase (NOS), which is crucial for vascular function and blood flow regulation. NO activates guanylate cyclase, leading to increased levels of cyclic GMP, a secondary messenger that mediates vasodilation and other cellular responses. This pathway is vital in both the cardiovascular and immune systems, with different isoforms of NOS (eNOS, nNOS, iNOS) contributing to various physiological effects.

Pharmacodynamics

L-arginine has been shown to enhance immune responses, improve wound healing, stimulate growth hormone release, and support muscle hypertrophy and tissue repair. Its role in nitric oxide production aids in vasodilation, improving blood circulation and oxygen delivery to tissues, which is essential for recovery and regeneration.

Pharmacokinetics

L-arginine is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1-2 hours after oral administration. It is metabolized primarily in the liver and kidneys, with a half-life of approximately 1-2 hours. The bioavailability of L-arginine can be influenced by dietary intake and metabolic conditions.

Adverse effects

• Gastrointestinal disturbances
• Nausea
• Diarrhea
• Abdominal pain
• Hypotension
• Allergic reactions

Interactions

• Antihypertensive agents may have additive effects leading to increased hypotension
• Sildenafil and other medications for erectile dysfunction may have enhanced effects when used with L-arginine

Precautions

• Caution in patients with a history of asthma or allergies
• Use with caution in patients with hypotension
• Monitor blood pressure in patients taking antihypertensive medications

Pregnancy

The safety of L-arginine in pregnancy has not been established. Consult a healthcare provider before use.

Breast-feeding

L-arginine is excreted in breast milk, and its safety during breastfeeding is not well established. Consult a healthcare provider.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Oral tablets
• Powder for oral solution
• Capsules

Indications

• Manganese deficiency
• Bone health and development
• Antioxidant support
• Enzyme cofactor in metabolic processes

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate dosing recommendations.

Adults: Refer to specific clinical guidelines or the BNF for appropriate dosing recommendations.

Mechanism of action

Manganese serves as a cofactor for several enzymes, including manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), which protects cells from oxidative stress by catalyzing the dismutation of superoxide radicals into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. It also participates in the activation of enzymes involved in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.

Pharmacodynamics

Manganese plays a role in various biochemical pathways, particularly in the metabolism of amino acids, cholesterol, glucose, and carbohydrates. It is crucial for bone formation and the maintenance of cartilage. Manganese also aids in the synthesis of glycosyltransferases, which are important for the formation of glycoproteins and proteoglycans.

Pharmacokinetics

Manganese is absorbed primarily in the small intestine, with absorption efficiency influenced by dietary factors and the presence of competing minerals. It is transported in the bloodstream bound to proteins such as alpha-2-macroglobulin and transferrin. Manganese is stored in the liver, pancreas, and bones, and is excreted primarily through bile and to a lesser extent in urine. Its half-life in the human body is not well defined due to its trace nature and variable absorption.

Pregnancy

Manganese is classified as a dietary mineral that is essential for human health, but excessive intake should be avoided during pregnancy as it may affect fetal development.

Breast-feeding

Manganese is present in breast milk, and normal dietary intake is considered safe during breastfeeding. However, excessive supplementation should be avoided.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct light and moisture.

Indications

• Allergic contact dermatitis
• Skin sensitization
• Use in hair dyes and cosmetic products

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific product guidelines and local regulations for appropriate use, as para is primarily used in topical applications and not typically dosed systematically.

Adults: Refer to specific product guidelines and local regulations for appropriate use, as para is primarily used in topical applications and not typically dosed systematically.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action of para, particularly in relation to its sensitizing properties, involves the formation of benzoquinone from para-phenylenediamine. This metabolite is implicated in allergic reactions by modifying proteins, leading to the activation of the immune response in sensitized individuals.

Pharmacodynamics

Para exhibits skin-sensitizing properties, which can lead to allergic dermatitis upon exposure. The compound can cause a range of reactions, from mild irritation to severe allergic responses, depending on the individual's sensitivity and the concentration of the compound used. Its effects are primarily local, affecting the skin at the site of contact.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of para are not well-documented in the literature. However, it is known that upon dermal exposure, it can be absorbed through the skin, leading to systemic effects in sensitized individuals. Metabolism may occur in the liver, with the potential formation of reactive metabolites contributing to its toxicity. Excretion primarily occurs via urine.

Interactions

• bisphosphonates+parathyroidhormone: Severe (decreases effects)
• paracetamol+topicalprilocaine: Moderate (increases risk of methaemoglobinaemia)
• paracetamol+topicalanaesthetics,local: Moderate (increases risk of methaemoglobinaemia)
• paracetamol+prilocaine: Moderate (increases risk of methaemoglobinaemia)
• paracetamol+coumarins: Unknown (increases anticoagulant effect)
• paracetamol+dapsone: Unknown (increases risk of methaemoglobinaemia)
• imatinib+paracetamol: Unknown (increases risk of hepatotoxicity)
• pitolisant+paracetamol: Unknown (decreases exposure)
• rifampicin+paracetamol: Unknown (decreases exposure)

Indications

• Vitamin B6 deficiency
• Peripheral neuropathy associated with isoniazid therapy
• Supplementation in specific dietary deficiencies

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific paediatric dosing guidance.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing details, typically 10-50 mg daily for deficiency.

Mechanism of action

Pyridoxine, mainly in its active form pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, is involved in numerous biochemical reactions, including amino acid metabolism, glycogen breakdown, nucleic acid synthesis, and the production of key neurotransmitters. It aids in the synthesis of hemoglobin and sphingolipids, and its deficiency can impair several physiological processes, including immune response and vascular health.

Pharmacodynamics

Pyridoxine is utilized for the prevention and treatment of vitamin B6 deficiency, particularly in individuals undergoing treatment with isoniazid, which can deplete vitamin B6 levels. It may also have beneficial effects on blood pressure and lipid profiles, as studies have shown it can lower both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, inhibit platelet aggregation, and improve cholesterol levels. Additionally, it plays a role in enhancing immune function and protecting endothelial cells from injury.

Pharmacokinetics

Pyridoxine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. It is transported to tissues where it is phosphorylated to its active form, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. The vitamin is primarily excreted in urine as pyridoxine and its metabolites. Its half-life varies depending on the individual’s nutritional status and other factors. Adequate dietary intake is essential for maintaining optimal levels in the body.

Pregnancy

Pyridoxine is generally considered safe during pregnancy. However, high doses should be avoided unless specifically prescribed.

Breast-feeding

Pyridoxine is excreted in breast milk, but at normal dietary levels it is considered safe for breastfeeding mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Tablets
• Oral solution
• Injectable form

Indications

• Vitamin A deficiency
• Night blindness
• Impaired wound healing
• Epithelial disorders

Dosage

Children: Refer to BNF for Children for specific paediatric dosing information.

Adults: Refer to BNF for specific adult dosing information.

Mechanism of action

Retinol is converted in the retina to 11-cis-retinal, which is crucial for the conversion of light into neural signals necessary for vision. It binds to opsin in rhodopsin, facilitating the isomerization to all-trans-retinal upon exposure to light, thus triggering visual signaling. Additionally, retinol interacts with retinoic acid receptors (RARs) and retinoid-X receptors (RXRs) as transcription factors, modulating gene expression related to cellular differentiation and growth.

Pharmacodynamics

Vitamin A is effective in treating Vitamin A deficiency, which can lead to vision impairment and other health issues. It plays a critical role in various biological processes including vision, cellular differentiation, reproduction, and immune system function. Its deficiency can cause symptoms such as night blindness and impaired wound healing, while adequate levels support growth and development.

Pharmacokinetics

Retinol is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and stored in the liver, where it can be mobilized as needed. It undergoes metabolism primarily in the liver, where it is converted to retinal and retinoic acid, the active forms of Vitamin A. The elimination half-life varies, but retinol is generally excreted in urine and bile. The bioavailability can be affected by dietary fat intake.

Adverse effects

• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Headache
• Dizziness
• Fatigue
• Irritability
• Dry skin
• Peeling of skin
• Itching
• Blurred vision

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with liver disease due to potential hepatotoxicity.
• Monitor for signs of vitamin A toxicity, especially in patients on high doses or prolonged therapy.
• Caution in patients with a history of alcohol abuse, as it may exacerbate liver conditions.

Pregnancy

Retinol should be used with caution during pregnancy due to the risk of teratogenic effects. High doses of vitamin A can lead to fetal malformations.

Breast-feeding

Retinol is generally considered safe during breastfeeding, but excessive intake should be avoided to prevent potential adverse effects on the infant.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Capsules
• Tablets
• Oral solutions
• Topical preparations

Indications

• Riboflavin deficiency
• Migraine prevention
• Cataract prevention
• General health maintenance

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific paediatric dosing recommendations.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing recommendations for adults.

Mechanism of action

Riboflavin binds to riboflavin hydrogenase, riboflavin kinase, and riboflavin synthase. It is converted into two coenzymes: flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), which are essential for various oxidative enzyme systems, facilitating hydrogen transport. The antioxidant activity of riboflavin is largely due to its role as a precursor of FAD, which is involved in producing reduced glutathione, a major antioxidant enzyme cofactor.

Pharmacodynamics

Riboflavin is easily absorbed and plays a key role in numerous physiological functions, including energy production, red blood cell formation, and growth regulation. It is vital for the maintenance of healthy skin and eyes and has a role in the prevention and treatment of eye disorders, including cataracts. Riboflavin also supports thyroid activity and general health.

Pharmacokinetics

Riboflavin is readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and is distributed throughout the body. It is primarily excreted in urine, with excess amounts eliminated, as riboflavin is a water-soluble vitamin. The pharmacokinetics of riboflavin can vary based on dietary intake and individual physiological conditions.

Adverse effects

• No significant adverse effects reported with normal dietary intake
• High doses may lead to yellow-orange discoloration of urine
• Rarely, hypersensitivity reactions

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with known hypersensitivity to riboflavin or any of its components
• Consult healthcare provider before starting high-dose riboflavin supplements

Pregnancy

Riboflavin is generally considered safe during pregnancy and is important for fetal development. Adequate intake is necessary to prevent deficiency.

Breast-feeding

Riboflavin is excreted in breast milk, and adequate maternal intake is important for infant health.

Storage

Store in a tightly closed container at room temperature, away from light and moisture.

Formulations

• Tablets
• Capsules
• Oral solutions
• Powder for reconstitution

Indications

• Thiamine deficiency
• Wernicke's encephalopathy
• Beriberi
• Alcoholism-related complications
• Certain metabolic disorders

Dosage

Children: Refer to BNF for Children for appropriate dosing information.

Adults: Refer to established clinical guidelines or BNF for specific dosing recommendations.

Mechanism of action

Thiamine is a coenzyme for several important enzymatic reactions, including the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. It is essential for converting carbohydrates into energy, facilitating the metabolism of glucose, and maintaining normal nerve function.

Pharmacodynamics

Thiamine deficiency leads to impaired carbohydrate metabolism, which can result in neurological and cardiovascular dysfunction. Supplementation with thiamine helps restore normal metabolic function and can alleviate symptoms associated with deficiency, such as Wernicke's encephalopathy and Beriberi. It also plays a role in the synthesis of neurotransmitters and in maintaining myelin integrity.

Pharmacokinetics

Thiamine is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1-2 hours after oral administration. It is distributed throughout the body, primarily in the liver, kidneys, and heart. Thiamine is metabolized in the liver to its active form, thiamine pyrophosphate. It has a biological half-life of about 9-18 days and is excreted primarily in the urine. Excess thiamine is excreted, making toxicity rare.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions
• Hypersensitivity reactions
• Gastrointestinal disturbances

Interactions

• May interact with certain diuretics, leading to altered thiamine levels

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with renal impairment
• Monitor patients with a history of thiamine deficiency

Pregnancy

Thiamine is considered safe during pregnancy, as it is an essential nutrient.

Breast-feeding

Thiamine is excreted in breast milk, but supplementation is generally considered safe for breastfeeding mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Thiamine hydrochloride injection
• Thiamine hydrochloride oral tablets
• Thiamine hydrochloride oral solution

Indications

• Prevention of vitamin E deficiency
• Antioxidant therapy
• Support in conditions related to oxidative stress

Dosage

Children: Refer to BNF for Children for specific dosage guidelines.

Adults: Refer to BNF for specific dosage guidelines.

Mechanism of action

Tocopherol acts as a radical scavenger, primarily functioning as an antioxidant for lipid bilayers. It donates hydrogen atoms to free radicals, trapping them and preventing cellular damage. Its effectiveness is influenced by its location within the membrane and its interaction with cytosolic reductants like ascorbate. Tocopherol can trap multiple radicals, including alkyl and peroxy radicals.

Pharmacodynamics

The antioxidant properties of tocopherol lead to significant pharmacodynamic effects, including the inhibition of cell death through modulation of protein kinase C (PKC). Tocopherol also exhibits anti-inflammatory effects, which can be attributed to its influence on cytokines, prostaglandins, prostanoids, and thromboxanes. These interactions may contribute to its protective effects in various pathological conditions.

Pharmacokinetics

Tocopherol is absorbed in the intestines and its bioavailability can be influenced by dietary fat intake. It is transported in the plasma primarily bound to lipoproteins. Tocopherol is stored in adipose tissue and the liver, and its elimination occurs through bile and urine. The half-life of tocopherol can vary depending on the individual's nutritional status and other factors.

Pregnancy

Tocopherol is generally considered safe during pregnancy, but it is advisable to consult a healthcare provider before use.

Breast-feeding

Tocopherol is excreted in breast milk, and while it is considered safe, a healthcare provider should be consulted for specific recommendations.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Mechanism of action

Vitamin B12 serves as a cofactor for _methionine synthase_ and _L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase_ enzymes. Methionine synthase is essential for the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines that form DNA. L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase converts L-methylmalonyl-CoA to _succinyl-CoA_ in the degradation of propionate, an important reaction required for both fat and protein metabolism. It is a lack of vitamin B12 cofactor in the above reaction and the resulting accumulation of methylmalonyl CoA that is believed to be responsible for the neurological manifestations of B12 deficiency. Succinyl-CoA is also necessary for the synthesis of hemoglobin. In tissues, vitamin B12 is required for the synthesis of _methionine_ from homocysteine. Methionine is required for the formation of S-adenosylmethionine, a methyl donor for nearly 100 substrates, comprised of DNA, RNA, hormones, proteins, as well as lipids. Without vitamin B12, tetrahydrofolate cannot be regenerated from 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, and this can lead to functional folate deficiency,. This reaction is dependent on methylcobalamin (vitamin B12) as a co-factor and is also dependent on folate, in which the methyl group of methyltetrahydrofolate is transferred to homocysteine to form _methionine_ and _tetrahydrofolate_. Vitamin B12 incorporates into circulating folic acid into growing red blood cells; retaining the folate in these cells. A deficiency of vitamin B12 and the interruption of this reaction leads to the development of megaloblastic anemia.

Pharmacodynamics

**General effects** Cyanocobalamin corrects vitamin B12 deficiency and improves the symptoms and laboratory abnormalities associated with pernicious anemia (megaloblastic indices, gastrointestinal lesions, and neurologic damage). This drug aids in growth, cell reproduction, hematopoiesis, nucleoprotein, and myelin synthesis. It also plays an important role in fat metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, as well as protein synthesis. Cells that undergo rapid division (for example, epithelial cells, bone marrow, and myeloid cells) have a high demand for vitamin B12. **Parenteral cyanocobalamin effects** The parenteral administration of vitamin B12 rapidly and completely reverses the megaloblastic anemia and gastrointestinal symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency. Rapid parenteral administration of vitamin B12 in deficiency related neurological damage prevents the progression of this condition. **Nasal spray effects** In 24 vitamin B12 deficient patients who were already stabilized on intramuscular (IM) vitamin B12 therapy, single daily doses of intranasal cyanocobalamin for 8 weeks lead to serum vitamin B12 concentrations that were within the target therapeutic range (>200 ng/L).

Mechanism of action

Selenium is first metabolized to selenophosphate and selenocysteine. Selenium incorporation is genetically encoded through the RNA sequence UGA. This sequence is recognized by RNA ste loop structures called selenocysteine inserting sequences (SECIS). These structures require the binding of SECIS binding proteins (SBP-2) to recognize selenocystiene. The specialized tRNA is first bound to a serine residue which is then enzymatically processed to a selylcysteyl-tRNA by selenocystiene sythase using selenophosphate as a selenium donor. Other unidentified proteins are required as part of the binding of this tRNA to the ribosome. Selenoproteins appear to be necessary for life as mice with the specialized tRNA gene knocked out exhibited early embryonic lethality. The most important selenoproteins seem to be the glutathione peroxidases and thioredoxin reductases which are part of the body's defenses againts reactive oxygen species (ROS). The importance of selenium in these anti-oxidant proteins has been implicated in the reduction of atherosclerosis by preventing the oxidation of low density lipoprotein. Selenium supplementation is also being investigated in the prevention of cancer and has been suggested to be beneficial to immune function. Converging data from epidemiological, ecological, and clinical studies have shown that selenium (Se) can decrease the risk for some types of human cancers. Induction of apoptosis is considered an important cellular event that can account for the cancer preventive effects of Se. Prior to occurrence of apoptosis, Se compounds alter the expression and/or activities of signaling molecules, mitochondria-associated factors, transcriptional factors, tumor suppressor genes, and cellular reduced glutathione. Mechanistic studies have demonstrated that the methylselenol metabolite pool has many desirable attributes of chemoprevention, whereas the hydrogen selenide pool with excess of selenoprotein synthesis can lead to DNA single-strand breaks. To elucidate the effects of Se on cytotoxic events, it should be remembered that the chemical forms and the dose of Se, and the experimental system used, are determinants of its biological activities. This mini-review focuses on elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of cancer prevention by Se with the apoptotic approach. /Selenium/ Selenium status can also influence thyroid hormone function via the deiodinase enzymes. Selenium is a critical component of the deiodinase enzymes, including iodothyronine 5'-deiodinases, which convert the prohormone thyroxine (T4) to the active circulating form, triiodothyronine (T3). Selenium is also a component of GPX, the main enzyme responsible for protecting thyroid cells against oxidative damage. GPX is involved in the detoxification of hydrogen peroxide, which is produced in the thyroid during the conversion of T4 to T3. /Selenium/ Selenium readily substitutes for sulfur in biomolecules and in many biochemical reactions, especially when the concentration of selenium is high and the concentration of sulfur is low in the organism. Inactivation of the sulfhydryl enzymes necessary for oxidative reactions in cellular respiration, through effects on mitochondrial and microsomal electron transport, might contribute to acute selenium toxicity. Selenium may have a role in hepatic heme metabolism that is related to GPX or lipid peroxidation. Selenocysteine is specifically found in some proteins (e.g., glutathione peroxidase); selenomethionine appears to randomly substitute for methionine in protein synthesis. This appears to be an additional mechanism for intermediate- or chronic-duration toxicity. Skin, hair, and nail damage are significant indicators of chronic selenium overexposure. The mechanism causing these integumentary effects is unclear, but could be related to the high selenium concentrations in these tissues as a consequence of the substitution of selenium for sulfur in certain amino acids, including the disulfide bridges that pr

Pharmacodynamics

Selenium is incorporated into many different selenoproteins which serve various functions throughout the body.

Mechanism of action

It is thought that the mechanism of action of thiamine on endothelial cells is related to a reduction in intracellular protein glycation by redirecting the glycolytic flux. Thiamine is mainly the transport form of the vitamin, while the active forms are phosphorylated thiamine derivatives. Natural derivatives of thiamine phosphate, such as thiamine monophosphate (ThMP), thiamine diphosphate (ThDP), also sometimes called thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), thiamine triphosphate (ThTP), and thiamine triphosphate (AThTP), that act as coenzymes in addition to their each unique biological functions. Metabolic control analysis predicts that stimulators of transketolase enzyme synthesis such as thiamin (vitamin B-1) support a high rate of nucleic acid ribose synthesis necessary for tumor cell survival, chemotherapy resistance, and proliferation. Metabolic control analysis also predicts that transketolase inhibitor drugs will have the opposite effect on tumor cells. This may have important implications in the nutrition and future treatment of patients with cancer.

Pharmacodynamics

Thiamine is a vitamin with antioxidant, erythropoietic, cognition-and mood-modulatory, antiatherosclerotic, putative ergogenic, and detoxification activities. Thiamine has been found to protect against lead-induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver and kidney. Thiamine deficiency results in selective neuronal death in animal models. The neuronal death is associated with increased free radical production, suggesting that oxidative stress may play an important early role in brain damage associated with thiamine deficiency. Thiamine plays a key role in intracellular glucose metabolism and it is thought that thiamine inhibits the effect of glucose and insulin on arterial smooth muscle cell proliferation. Inhibition of endothelial cell proliferation may also promote atherosclerosis. Endothelial cells in culture have been found to have a decreased proliferative rate and delayed migration in response to hyperglycemic conditions. Thiamine has been shown to inhibit this effect of glucose on endothelial cells.

Mechanism of action

Most individuals naturally generate adequate amounts of vitamin D through ordinary dietary intake of vitamin D (in some foods like eggs, fish, and cheese) and natural photochemical conversion of the vitamin D3 precursor 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin via exposure to sunlight. Conversely, vitamin D deficiency can often occur from a combination of insufficient exposure to sunlight, inadequate dietary intake of vitamin D, genetic defects with endogenous vitamin D receptor, or even severe liver or kidney disease. Such deficiency is known for resulting in conditions like rickets or osteomalacia, all of which reflect inadequate mineralization of bone, enhanced compensatory skeletal demineralization, resultant decreased calcium ion blood concentrations, and increases in the production and secretion of parathyroid hormone. Increases in parathyroid hormone stimulate the mobilization of skeletal calcium and the renal excretion of phosphorus. This enhanced mobilization of skeletal calcium leads towards porotic bone conditions. Ordinarily, while vitamin D3 is made naturally via photochemical processes in the skin, both itself and vitamin D2 can be found in various food and pharmaceutical sources as dietary supplements. The principal biological function of vitamin D is the maintenance of normal levels of serum calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream by enhancing the efficacy of the small intestine to absorb these minerals from the diet. At the liver, vitamin D3 or D2 is hydroxylated to 25-hydroxyvitamin D and then finally to the primary active metabolite 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in the kidney via further hydroxylation. This final metabolite binds to endogenous vitamin d receptors, which results in a variety of regulatory roles - including maintaining calcium balance, the regulation of parathyroid hormone, the promotion of the renal reabsorption of calcium, increased intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus, and increased calcium and phosphorus mobilization of calcium and phosphorus from bone to plasma to maintain balanced levels of each in bone and the plasma. In particular, calcitriol interacts with vitamin D receptors in the small intestine to enhance the efficiency of intestinal calcium and phosphorous absorption from about 10-15% to 30-40% and 60% increased to 80%, respectively. Furthermore, calcitriol binds with vitamin D receptors in osteoblasts to stimulate a receptor activator of nuclear factor kB ligand (or RANKL) which subsequently interacts with receptor activator of nuclear factor kB (NFkB) on immature preosteoclasts, causing them to become mature bone-resorbing osteoclasts. Such mature osteoclasts ultimately function in removing calcium and phosphorus from bone to maintain blood calcium and phosphorus levels. Moreover, calcitriol also stimulates calcium reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate in the kidneys. Additionally, it is believed that when calcitriol binds with nuclear vitamin D receptors, that this bound complex itself binds to retinoic acid X receptor (RXR) to generate a heterodimeric complex that consequently binds to specific nucleotide sequences in the DNA called vitamin D response elements. When bound, various transcription factors attach to this complex, resulting in either up or down-regulation of the associated gene's activity. It is thought that there may be as much as 200 to 2000 genes that possess vitamin D response elements or that are influenced indirectly to control a multitude of genes across the genome. It is in this way that cholecalciferol is believed to function in regulating gene transcription associated with cancer risk, autoimmune disorders, and cardiovascular disease linked to vitamin D deficiency. In fact, there has been some research to suggest calcitriol may also be able to prevent malignancies by inducing cellular maturation and inducing apoptosis and inhibiting angiogenesis, exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting foam cell formation and promoting angiogenesis in en

Pharmacodynamics

The in vivo synthesis of the predominant two biologically active metabolites of vitamin D occurs in two steps. The first hydroxylation of vitamin D3 cholecalciferol (or D2) occurs in the liver to yield 25-hydroxyvitamin D while the second hydroxylation happens in the kidneys to give 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D. These vitamin D metabolites subsequently facilitate the active absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the small intestine, serving to increase serum calcium and phosphate levels sufficiently to allow bone mineralization. Conversely, these vitamin D metabolites also assist in mobilizing calcium and phosphate from bone and likely increase the reabsorption of calcium and perhaps also of phosphate via the renal tubules. There exists a period of 10 to 24 hours between the administration of cholecalciferol and the initiation of its action in the body due to the necessity of synthesis of the active vitamin D metabolites in the liver and kidneys. It is parathyroid hormone that is responsible for the regulation of such metabolism at the level of the kidneys.

Mechanism of action

Chromium is an essential nutrient involved in the metabolism of glucose, insulin and blood lipids. Its role in potentiating insulin signalling cascades has been implicated in several studies. Chromium upregulates insulin-stimulated insulin signal transduction via affecting effector molecules downstream of the insulin receptor (IR). IR-mediated signalling pathway involves phoshorylation of multiple intracellular domains and protein kinases, and downstream effector molecules. Upon activation by ligands, intracellular β-subunit of IR autophosphorylates and activates tyrosine kinase domain of the IR, followed by activation and phosphorylation of regulatory proteins and downstream signalling effectors including phosphatidylinositol 2-kinase (PI3K). PI3K activates further downstream reaction cascades to activate protein kinase B (Akt) to ultimately promote translocation of glucose transporter-4 (Glut4)-vesicles from the cytoplasm to the cell surface and regulate glucose uptake. Chromium enhances the kinase activity of insulin receptor β and increases the activity of downstream effectors, pI3-kinase and Akt. Under insulin-resistant conditions, chromium also promotes GLUT-4 transporter translocation that is independent of activity of IR, IRS-1, PI3-kinase, or Akt; chromium mediates cholesterol efflux from the membranes via increasing fluidity of the membrane by decreasing the membrane cholesterol and upregulation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein. As a result, intracellular GLUT-4 transporters are stimulated to translocate from intracellular to the plasma membrane, leading to enhanced glucose uptake in muscle cells. Chromium attenuates the activity of PTP-1B _in vitro,_ which is a negative regulator of insulin signaling. It also alleviates ER stress that is observed to be elevated the suppression of insulin signaling. ER stress is thought to activate c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), which subsequently induces serine phosphorylation of IRS and aberration of insulin signalling. Transient upregulation of AMPK by chromium also leads to increased glucose uptake. While the toxicity of metals and metalloids, like arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead and chromium, is undisputed, the underlying molecular mechanisms are not entirely clear. General consensus holds that proteins are the prime targets; heavy metals interfere with the physiological activity of specific, particularly susceptible proteins, either by forming a complex with functional side chain groups or by displacing essential metal ions in metalloproteins. Recent studies have revealed an additional mode of metal action targeted at proteins in a non-native state; certain heavy metals and metalloids have been found to inhibit the in vitro refolding of chemically denatured proteins, to interfere with protein folding in vivo and to cause aggregation of nascent proteins in living cells. Apparently, unfolded proteins with motile backbone and side chains are considerably more prone to engage in stable, pluridentate metal complexes than native proteins with their well-defined 3D structure. By interfering with the folding process, heavy metal ions and metalloids profoundly affect protein homeostasis and cell viability. This review describes how heavy metals impede protein folding and promote protein aggregation, how cells regulate quality control systems to protect themselves from metal toxicity and how metals might contribute to protein misfolding disorders.

Pharmacodynamics

Trivalent chromium is part of glucose tolerance factor, an essential activator of insulin-mediated reactions. Chromium helps to maintain normal glucose metabolism and peripheral nerve function. Chromium increases insulin binding to cells, increases insulin receptor density and activates insulin receptor kinase leading to enhanced insulin sensitivity. In chromium deficiency, intravenous administration of chromium resulted in normalization of the glucose tolerance curve from the diabetic-like curve typical of chromium deficiency.

Mechanism of action

Copper is absorbed from the gut via high affinity copper uptake protein and likely through low affinity copper uptake protein and natural resistance-associated macrophage protein-2. It is believed that copper is reduced to the Cu1+ form prior to transport. Once inside the enterocyte, it is bound to copper transport protein ATOX1 which shuttles the ion to copper transporting ATPase-1 on the golgi membrane which take up copper into the golgi apparatus. Once copper has been secreted by enterocytes into the systemic circulation it remain largely bound by ceruloplasmin (65-90%), albumin (18%), and alpha 2-macroglobulin (12%). Copper is an essential element in the body and is incorporated into many oxidase enzymes as a cofactor. It is also a component of zinc/copper super oxide dismutase, giving it an anti-oxidant role. Copper defiency occurs in Occipital Horn Syndrome and Menke's disease both of which are associated with impaired development of connective tissue due to the lack of copper to act as a cofactor in protein-lysine-6-oxidase. Menke's disease is also associated with progressive neurological impairment leading to death in infancy. The precise mechanisms of the effects of copper deficiency are vague due to the wide range of enzymes which use the ion as a cofactor. Copper appears to reduce the viabilty and motility of spermatozoa. This reduces the likelihood of fertilization with a copper IUD, producing copper's contraceptive effect. The exact mechanism of copper's effect on sperm are unknown. The reason for the less severe reaction when the foreign body is at a distance from the retina has been proposed to be ... that near the retina & its blood vessels there is greater oxygen tension than at a distance, which causes metallic copper to oxidize to toxic copper compounds more rapidly close to or in contact with the retina than at a distance. Furthermore, the abscess formation that is characteristic of copper undergoing oxidation close to the retina & choroiod can be attributed to attraction of polymorphonuclear leukocytes from these nearby vascular tissues, which become heavily infiltrated. Liquefaction & disorganization of the vitreous body has been explained on the basis of copper catalysis of oxidation of ascorbic acid, leading to depolymerization of the hyaluronic acid of the vitreous humor. Changes in protein & hexosamine content have also been related to decrease in viscosity of the vitreous humor. Increased content of amino acids in the vitreous humor has been consistent with proteolysis of the vitreous body, but decreased concentration in the aqueous humor has suggested suppression of secretion of amino acids by the ciliary body under the influence of copper.

Pharmacodynamics

Copper is incorporated into many enzymes throughout the body as an essential part of their function. Copper ions are known to reduce fertility when released from copper-containing IUDs.

Mechanism of action

Molecular iodine is known to inhibit the induction and promotion of N-methyl-n-nitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis, to regress 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced breast tumors in rats.It has also been shown to have beneficial effects in fibrocystic human breast disease. An acute iodide excess (above the preexisting dietary intake) transiently decreases the production of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland; this is referred to as the acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect. In normal people, this is followed by a return to normal levels of hormone synthesis, referred to as escape from the acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect, without a significant change in circulating hormone levels. Escape is thought to be the result of down regulation of the sodium-iodide symport (NIS), the iodide transporter in the thyroid gland, resulting in a decrease in the intrathyroidal iodine and the resumption of normal hormone synthesis. An acute or chronic excess of iodide can also decrease circulating T4 and T3 levels and induce a hypothyroid state in some people who have underlying thyroid disorders. These effects are the result of a failure to escape from the acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect. Most people who experience iodine-induced hypothyroidism recover when the excess iodine intake is discontinued.

Mechanism of action

Many of supplemental L-arginine's activities, including its possible anti-atherogenic actions, may be accounted for by its role as the precursor to nitric oxide or NO. NO is produced by all tissues of the body and plays very important roles in the cardiovascular system, immune system and nervous system. NO is formed from L-arginine via the enzyme nitric oxide synthase or synthetase (NOS), and the effects of NO are mainly mediated by 3,'5' -cyclic guanylate or cyclic GMP. NO activates the enzyme guanylate cyclase, which catalyzes the synthesis of cyclic GMP from guanosine triphosphate or GTP. Cyclic GMP is converted to guanylic acid via the enzyme cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase. NOS is a heme-containing enzyme with some sequences similar to cytochrome P-450 reductase. Several isoforms of NOS exist, two of which are constitutive and one of which is inducible by immunological stimuli. The constitutive NOS found in the vascular endothelium is designated eNOS and that present in the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system is designated nNOS. The form of NOS induced by immunological or inflammatory stimuli is known as iNOS. iNOS may be expressed constitutively in select tissues such as lung epithelium. All the nitric oxide synthases use NADPH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) and oxygen (O2) as cosubstrates, as well as the cofactors FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), FMN (flavin mononucleotide), tetrahydrobiopterin and heme. Interestingly, ascorbic acid appears to enhance NOS activity by increasing intracellular tetrahydrobiopterin. eNOS and nNOS synthesize NO in response to an increased concentration of calcium ions or in some cases in response to calcium-independent stimuli, such as shear stress. In vitro studies of NOS indicate that the Km of the enzyme for L-arginine is in the micromolar range. The concentration of L-arginine in endothelial cells, as well as in other cells, and in plasma is in the millimolar range. What this means is that, under physiological conditions, NOS is saturated with its L-arginine substrate. In other words, L-arginine would not be expected to be rate-limiting for the enzyme, and it would not appear that supraphysiological levels of L-arginine which could occur with oral supplementation of the amino acid^would make any difference with regard to NO production. The reaction would appear to have reached its maximum level. However, in vivo studies have demonstrated that, under certain conditions, e.g. hypercholesterolemia, supplemental L-arginine could enhance endothelial-dependent vasodilation and NO production.

Pharmacodynamics

Studies have shown that is has improved immune responses to bacteria, viruses and tumor cells; promotes wound healing and regeneration of the liver; causes the release of growth hormones; considered crucial for optimal muscle growth and tissue repair.

Mechanism of action

FROM STUDIES OF THE INTRACUTANEOUS SENSITIZATION OF GUINEA-PIGS USING PARA-PHENYLENEDIAMINE, HYDROQUINONE, QUINHYDRONE AND BENZOQUINONE, IT HAS BEEN SUGGESTED THAT BENZOQUINONE FORMATION PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE ALLERGIC ACTION OF PARA-PHENYLENEDIAMINE.

Mechanism of action

Vitamin B6 is the collective term for a group of three related compounds, pyridoxine (PN), pyridoxal (PL) and pyridoxamine (PM), and their phosphorylated derivatives, pyridoxine 5'-phosphate (PNP), pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) and pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate (PMP). Although all six of these compounds should technically be referred to as vitamin B6, the term vitamin B6 is commonly used interchangeably with just one of them, pyridoxine. Vitamin B6, principally in its biologically active coenzyme form pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, is involved in a wide range of biochemical reactions, including the metabolism of amino acids and glycogen, the synthesis of nucleic acids, hemogloblin, sphingomyelin and other sphingolipids, and the synthesis of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).

Pharmacodynamics

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is a water-soluble vitamin used in the prophylaxis and treatment of vitamin B6 deficiency and peripheral neuropathy in those receiving isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide, INH). Vitamin B6 has been found to lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure in a small group of subjects with essential hypertension. Hypertension is another risk factor for atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Another study showed pyridoxine hydrochloride to inhibit ADP- or epinephrine-induced platelet aggregation and to lower total cholesterol levels and increase HDL-cholesterol levels, again in a small group of subjects. Vitamin B6, in the form of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, was found to protect vascular endothelial cells in culture from injury by activated platelets. Endothelial injury and dysfunction are critical initiating events in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Human studies have demonstrated that vitamin B6 deficiency affects cellular and humoral responses of the immune system. Vitamin B6 deficiency results in altered lymphocyte differentiation and maturation, reduced delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses, impaired antibody production, decreased lymphocyte proliferation and decreased interleukin (IL)-2 production, among other immunologic activities.

Mechanism of action

Vision:Vitamin A (all-<i>trans</i> retinol) is converted in the retina to the 11-<i>cis</i>-isomer of retinaldehyde or 11-<i>cis</i>-retinal. 11-<i>cis</i>-retinal functions in the retina in the transduction of light into the neural signals necessary for vision. 11-<i>cis</i>-retinal, while attached to opsin in rhodopsin is isomerized to all-<i>trans</i>-retinal by light. This is the event that triggers the nerve impulse to the brain which allows for the perception of light. All-<i>trans</i>-retinal is then released from opsin and reduced to all-<i>trans</i>-retinol. All-<i>trans</i>-retinol is isomerized to 11-<i>cis</i>-retinol in the dark, and then oxidized to 11-<i>cis</i>-retinal. 11-<i>cis</i>-retinal recombines with opsin to re-form rhodopsin. Night blindness or defective vision at low illumination results from a failure to re-synthesize 11-<i>cis</i> retinal rapidly. Epithelial differentiation: The role of Vitamin A in epithelial differentiation, as well as in other physiological processes, involves the binding of Vitamin A to two families of nuclear retinoid receptors (retinoic acid receptors, RARs; and retinoid-X receptors, RXRs). These receptors function as ligand-activated transcription factors that modulate gene transcription. When there is not enough Vitamin A to bind these receptors, natural cell differentiation and growth are interrupted. Topical vitamin A can reverse the impairment of wound healing seen in patients receiving corticosteroids, perhaps by restoring the normal inflammatory reaction in the wound. The possibility has been suggested that systemic vitamin A could inhibit the anti-inflammatory effect of systemic corticosteroids. Retinol arrested proliferation of cultured neuroblastoma cells at concentrations of 50 um. A correlation existed between inhibition of growth and inhibition of ornithine decarboxylase in both neuroblastoma cells and glioma cells with retinol. In rats exptl-hypervitaminosis A has been shown ... to produce severe damage of the retina, mainly in the pigment epithelium according to electron microscopy. Alcohol dehydrogenase activity was shown to disappear in the pigment epithelium and visual cells ... . /The authors/ have shown that in an experimental cell culture system consisting of carcinogen-treated 10T1/2 cells, both retinoids and all dietary carotenoids examined can reversibly inhibit neoplastic transformation in the post-initiation phase of carcinogenesis. This activity strongly correlates with their ability to increase gap junctional intercellular communication by up-regulating the expression of the gene CX43 (connexin43). Connexins comprise the structural unit of gap junctions, organelles which allow direct transfer of signals, nutrients and waste products between contacting cells. CX43 is the most widely expressed member of the gap junction family of genes, and we have demonstrated that its expression is strongly down-regulated in human cancers and in several premalignant conditions. When several human tumour cell lines were genetically engineered to conditionally express CX43 under the influence of a tetracycline promoter, their neoplastic phenotype was strongly attenuated. Specifically, induced cells were inhibited from growing in an anchorage-independent manner and, additionally, growth as xenografts in immunocompromised animals was also strongly attenuated. Growth inhibition in suspension was associated both with increased G(1) cell-cycle arrest and with increased apoptosis. /The authors/ propose a model whereby junctional communication allows the transfer of growth inhibitory signals from normal to neoplastic cells and that retinoids and carotenoids, by increasing signal transfer, act to prevent cancer.

Pharmacodynamics

Vitamin A is effective for the treatment of Vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A refers to a group of fat-soluble substances that are structurally related to and possess the biological activity of the parent substance of the group called all-<i>trans</i> retinol or retinol. Vitamin A plays vital roles in vision, epithelial differentiation, growth, reproduction, pattern formation during embryogenesis, bone development, hematopoiesis and brain development. It is also important for the maintenance of the proper functioning of the immune system.

Mechanism of action

Binds to riboflavin hydrogenase, riboflavin kinase, and riboflavin synthase. Riboflavin is the precursor of flavin mononucleotide (FMN, riboflavin monophosphate) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The antioxidant activity of riboflavin is principally derived from its role as a precursor of FAD and the role of this cofactor in the production of the antioxidant reduced glutathione. Reduced glutathione is the cofactor of the selenium-containing glutathione peroxidases among other things. The glutathione peroxidases are major antioxidant enzymes. Reduced glutathione is generated by the FAD-containing enzyme glutathione reductase. Riboflavin is converted to 2 coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), which are necessary for normal tissue respiration. Riboflavin is also required for activation of pyridoxine, conversion of tryptophan to niacin, and may be involved in maintaining erythrocyte integrity. Riboflavin functions as the coenzyme for flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin mononucleotide (FMN), which primarily influence hydrogen transport in oxidative enzyme systems (eg, cytochrome C reductase, succinic dehydrogenase, xanthine oxidase). Two active forms of riboflavin exist ... coenzyme flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and coenzyme flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). They are formed by reaction of riboflavin with 1 and 2 molecules of ATP as follow: riboflavin + ATP = riboflavin-P (FMN) + ADP; FMN + ATP = riboflavin-ADP (FAD) + PP. Riboflavin is a water-soluble, yellow, fluorescent compound. The primary form of the vitamin is as an integral component of the coenzymes flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin-adenine dinucleotide (FAD). It is in these bound coenzyme forms that riboflavin functions as a catalyst for redox reactions in numerous metabolic pathways and in energy production. ... The redox reactions in which flavocoenzymes participate include flavoprotein-catalyzed dehydrogenations that are both pyridine nucleotide (niacin) dependent and independent, reactions with sulfur-containing compounds, hydroxylations, oxidative decarboxylations (involving thiamin as its pyrophosphate), dioxygenations, and reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. There are obligatory roles of flavocoenzymes in the formation of some vitamins and their coenzymes. For example, the biosynthesis of two niacin-containing coenzymes from tryptophan occurs via FAD-dependent kynurenine hydroxylase, an FMN-dependent oxidase catalyzes the conversion of the 5'-phosphates of vitamin B6 to coenzymic pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, and an FAD-dependent dehydrogenase reduces 5,10-methylene-tetrahydrofolate to the 5'-methyl product that interfaces with the B12-dependent formation of methionine from homocysteine and thus with sulfur amino acid metabolism. For more Mechanism of Action (Complete) data for Riboflavin (7 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Pharmacodynamics

Riboflavin or vitamin B2 is an easily absorbed, water-soluble micronutrient with a key role in maintaining human health. Like the other B vitamins, it supports energy production by aiding in the metabolising of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Vitamin B2 is also required for red blood cell formation and respiration, antibody production, and for regulating human growth and reproduction. It is essential for healthy skin, nails, hair growth and general good health, including regulating thyroid activity. Riboflavin also helps in the prevention or treatment of many types of eye disorders, including some cases of cataracts.

Mechanism of action

Tocopherol acts as a radical scavenger. It mainly acts as an antioxidant for lipid bilayers. Tocopherol's functions depend on the H-atom donating ability, location, and movement within the membrane, as well as the efficiency in the radical recycling by some cytosolic reductants such as ascorbate. Tocopherol actions are related to the trap of radicals, and it has been shown that even in the absence of substituents in the ortho-positions, tocopherol can trap more than two radicals. The type of radicals available for tocopherol are alkyl and peroxy.

Pharmacodynamics

The antioxidant effects of tocopherol can be translated into different changes at the pharmacodynamic level. In vitro studies have shown that this antioxidant activity can produce modification in protein kinase C (PKC) which will later be translated into an inhibition of cell death. Some other derivate effects are the anti-inflammatory properties of tocopherol which can be related to the modulation of cytokines or prostaglandins, prostanoids and thromboxanes.