OXYNIC 600

Indications

• Bacterial infections
• Urinary tract infections
• Sinusitis
• Uncomplicated community-acquired pneumonia
• Salmonellosis
• Oral infections
• Lyme disease (under expert supervision)
• Acute exacerbation of bronchiectasis
• Anthrax (treatment and post-exposure prophylaxis)

Dosage

Children: 1 month–11 years: 30 mg/kg 3 times a day for 21 days; children 1–4 years: 250 mg 3 times a day; children 5–11 years: 500 mg 3 times a day.

Adults: 500 mg 3 times a day; increased if necessary up to 1 g 3 times a day in severe infections.

Mechanism of action

Amoxicillin works by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, leading to cell lysis and death. It binds to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall, interfering with the transpeptidation process necessary for cell wall integrity.

Pharmacodynamics

Amoxicillin exhibits bactericidal activity against susceptible bacteria. Its action is time-dependent, meaning that its effectiveness is related to the duration of time that the drug concentration remains above the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the target pathogen.

Pharmacokinetics

Amoxicillin is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma concentrations achieved within 1-2 hours after oral administration. It is widely distributed in body tissues and fluids, and it is excreted primarily via the kidneys. The elimination half-life is approximately 1 hour, and renal impairment may necessitate dosage adjustments.

Adverse effects

• Skin rash
• Gastrointestinal disturbances (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea)
• Allergic reactions (including anaphylaxis)
• Superinfection (due to resistant organisms)

Interactions

• Allopurinol (increases risk of skin rash)

Precautions

• History of penicillin allergy
• Renal impairment (reduce dose)
• Use with caution in patients with mononucleosis

Pregnancy

Use only if clearly needed; no adequate studies in pregnant women.

Breast-feeding

Amoxicillin is excreted in breast milk; use with caution.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Phenoxymethylpenicillin 250mg/5ml oral solution
• Phenoxymethylpenicillin 250 mg tablets

Indications

• Bacterial infections caused by beta-lactamase producing organisms
• Community-acquired pneumonia
• Respiratory tract infections
• Urinary tract infections
• Skin and soft tissue infections

Dosage

Children: Paediatric dosing of clavulanate should be determined based on the specific indication and the formulation used. Refer to the BNF for

Adults: The usual adult dose of clavulanate varies depending on the specific antibiotic it is combined with, generally ranging from 125 mg to 250 mg, taken every 8 hours when combined with amoxicillin.

Mechanism of action

Clavulanate works by irreversibly binding to the active site of beta-lactamase enzymes. By inhibiting these enzymes, clavulanate protects beta-lactam antibiotics from degradation, allowing them to exert their antibacterial effects effectively. This mechanism enhances the spectrum of activity of the co-administered antibiotic, thereby improving clinical outcomes in infections caused by beta-lactamase producing organisms.

Pharmacodynamics

Clavulanate exhibits a time-dependent antibacterial effect, characterized by its ability to maintain effective concentrations against beta-lactamase producing bacteria. Its pharmacodynamic properties are mainly influenced by its interaction with beta-lactam antibiotics, enhancing their efficacy in treating infections. The overall effect is a synergistic relationship that increases the potency of the antibiotic treatment.

Pharmacokinetics

Clavulanate is usually administered orally or parenterally, and it is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. It reaches peak plasma concentrations within 1 to 2 hours after administration. The drug is widely distributed in body tissues, with a volume of distribution indicative of good tissue penetration. Clavulanate undergoes hepatic metabolism, primarily by conjugation, and is excreted largely in the urine as metabolites. The elimination half-life is approximately 1 hour, necessitating frequent dosing for optimal therapeutic effect.

Contra-indications

• Hypersensitivity to clavulanate or any component of the formulation
• History of jaundice or hepatic impairment related to previous use of beta-lactam antibiotics

Adverse effects

• Diarrhea
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Rash
• Hepatic dysfunction
• Allergic reactions

Interactions

• Probenecid may increase concentrations of clavulanate
• Anticoagulants may have altered effects due to changes in gut flora

Precautions

• Monitor liver function during prolonged therapy
• Use cautiously in patients with renal impairment
• Assess for history of allergy to penicillins or cephalosporins

Pregnancy

Clavulanate is classified as category B. Animal studies have not shown teratogenic effects, but adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women are lacking.

Breast-feeding

Clavulanate is excreted in breast milk. Caution is advised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct light. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Clavulanate potassium 125 mg/5 mL
• Clavulanate potassium 250 mg/5 mL

Indications

• Infections caused by beta-lactamase-producing bacteria
• Acute bacterial sinusitis
• Acute otitis media
• Lower respiratory tract infections
• Urinary tract infections

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing according to age and weight; adjustments may be necessary based on the clinical scenario.

Adults: Refer to specific product guidelines for dosing; typical regimens depend on the combination antibiotic used and the severity of the infection.

Mechanism of action

Clavulanic acid works by irreversibly binding to the active site of beta-lactamase enzymes that are produced by certain bacteria to inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics. By inhibiting these enzymes, clavulanic acid protects the penicillin antibiotic from degradation, allowing it to exert its antibacterial effects.

Pharmacodynamics

Clavulanic acid has a synergistic effect when combined with other antibiotics, particularly amoxicillin. The presence of clavulanic acid allows for the effective treatment of infections caused by bacteria that would otherwise be resistant to penicillins. Its antibacterial activity is generally weak on its own but significantly enhances the efficacy of other beta-lactam antibiotics.

Pharmacokinetics

Clavulanic acid is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1 hour. It is widely distributed throughout the body and has a half-life of approximately 1 hour. The drug is primarily excreted unchanged in the urine. In the presence of renal impairment, dosage adjustment may be necessary, as the elimination of clavulanic acid can be affected.

Contra-indications

• Hypersensitivity to clavulanic acid or any of the excipients
• History of jaundice or hepatic impairment associated with previous use of penicillins or beta-lactam antibiotics

Adverse effects

• Nausea
• Diarrhea
• Rash
• Elevated liver enzymes
• Allergic reactions including anaphylaxis
• Superinfection

Interactions

• May enhance the effects of anticoagulants such as warfarin
• Probenecid may increase plasma concentrations of clavulanic acid
• May reduce the efficacy of oral contraceptives

Precautions

• Caution in patients with renal impairment
• Monitor liver function in patients receiving prolonged therapy
• Use with caution in patients with a history of allergic reactions to beta-lactams

Pregnancy

Clavulanic acid is categorized as pregnancy category B. Animal studies have not shown any harm to the fetus, but there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women.

Breast-feeding

Clavulanic acid is excreted in breast milk, but it is generally considered safe for use during breastfeeding. Monitor for potential effects in the infant.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and heat. Protect from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Oral tablets
• Oral suspension
• Injectable forms

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific medication packaging for appropriate dosing instructions.

Adults: Refer to specific medication packaging for appropriate dosing instructions.

Pregnancy

The safety of this drug in pregnancy has not been established. It should be used only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised when administering this drug during breastfeeding. It is advisable to consult a healthcare professional.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Surgical instrument sterilization
• Preparation of sterile pharmaceuticals
• Sterilization of medical devices
• Laboratory equipment sterilization
• Maintenance of aseptic conditions in operating rooms

Dosage

Children: Not applicable, as sterilization does not involve drug dosing.

Adults: Not applicable, as sterilization does not involve drug dosing.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action for sterilization techniques varies by method. For instance, autoclaving uses steam to denature proteins and disrupt cellular structures, effectively killing microorganisms. Chemical sterilants may act by damaging cellular membranes or interfering with metabolic processes. Radiation methods, such as gamma rays, cause DNA damage in microorganisms, preventing replication.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics in the context of sterilization is not applicable as it primarily pertains to drug action. However, understanding the effectiveness of sterilization methods can be related to the concentration of the agent used, exposure time, and the nature of the microorganisms targeted. The aim is to achieve a sterility assurance level (SAL) that ensures a significant reduction in microbial load.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics is not applicable in the traditional sense for sterilization processes, as they do not involve drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion. Instead, the effectiveness of a sterilization method is evaluated based on the parameters of the sterilization process itself, including temperature, pressure, time, and the nature of the sterilant used.

Pregnancy

Sterilized products are generally considered safe during pregnancy, but specific formulations should be evaluated for individual safety.

Breast-feeding

Sterilized products are usually safe during breastfeeding; however, it is advisable to consult healthcare professionals regarding specific products.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture. Follow specific storage instructions provided by the manufacturer.

Mechanism of action

Amoxicillin competitively inhibits penicillin-binding protein 1 and other high molecular weight penicillin binding proteins. Penicillin bind proteins are responsible for glycosyltransferase and transpeptidase reactions that lead to cross-linking of D-alanine and D-aspartic acid in bacterial cell walls. Without the action of penicillin binding proteins, bacteria upregulate autolytic enzymes and are unable to build and repair the cell wall, leading to bacteriocidal action. The penicillins and their metabolites are potent immunogens because of their ability to combine with proteins and act as haptens for acute antibody-mediated reactions. The most frequent (about 95 percent) or "major" determinant of penicillin allergy is the penicilloyl determinant produced by opening the beta-lactam ring of the penicillin. This allows linkage of the penicillin to protein at the amide group. "Minor" determinants (less frequent) are the other metabolites formed, including native penicillin and penicilloic acids. /Penicillins/ Amoxicillin is similar to penicillin in its bactericidal action against susceptible bacteria during the stage of active multiplication. It acts through the inhibition of cell wall biosynthesis that leads to the death of the bacteria.

Pharmacodynamics

Amoxicillin competitively inhibit penicillin binding proteins, leading to upregulation of autolytic enzymes and inhibition of cell wall synthesis. Amoxicillin has a long duration of action as it is usually given twice daily. Amoxicillin has a wide therapeutic range as mild overdoses are not associated with significant toxicity. Patients should be counselled regarding the risk of anaphylaxis, _Clostridium difficile_ infections, and bacterial resistance.