Prinalyn paediatric cough syrup

Indications

• Constipation
• Bowel cleansing

Dosage

Children: Child 1–11 months: 1 g as required, Child 1–11 years: 2 g as required, Child 12–17 years: 4 g as required.

Adults: 4 g as required, usually administered rectally.

Mechanism of action

When administered rectally, glycerol exerts a hygroscopic and/or local irritant action, drawing water from the tissues into the feces and reflexively stimulating evacuation. It decreases intraocular pressure by creating an osmotic gradient between the blood and intraocular fluid, causing fluid to move from the aqueous and vitreous humors into the bloodstream. Glycerol is classified as a hyperosmotic laxative and may also have lubricating and fecal softening effects.

Pharmacodynamics

Glycerol is commonly classified as an osmotic laxative, acting through its local irritant effects and possibly having lubricating and fecal softening actions. Glycerol suppositories usually produce effects within 15 to 30 minutes, providing quick relief from constipation.

Pharmacokinetics

Glycerol is rapidly absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract. It is metabolized in the liver and other tissues, with a half-life that varies depending on the route of administration. Following rectal administration, glycerol is primarily excreted in urine. The pharmacokinetics may vary based on dosage forms and individual patient factors.

Contra-indications

• Acute abdominal conditions
• Acute inflammatory bowel disease
• Intestinal obstruction
• Severe dehydration

Adverse effects

• Abdominal cramps
• Asthenia
• Gastrointestinal disorders
• Hypermagnesaemia
• Skin reactions
• Urine discolouration

Precautions

• Avoid prolonged contact with skin, especially in incontinent patients or infants wearing nappies due to the risk of irritation and excoriation.
• Excessive use may cause diarrhea and related effects such as hypokalaemia.

Pregnancy

Manufacturers advise avoidance due to limited information available.

Breast-feeding

Manufacturers advise avoidance as there is no information available.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Glycerol 1g suppositories
• Glycerol 2g suppositories
• Glycerol 4g suppositories
• Glycerol oral suspension

Indications

• Food preservative
• Treatment of urea cycle disorders
• Metabolic disorders involving benzoyl-CoA

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing guidelines based on condition.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing guidelines based on condition.

Mechanism of action

Benzoate acts mainly by inhibiting the growth of bacteria and fungi through its ability to lower the pH, creating an environment that is less favorable for microbial growth. It is also involved in metabolic pathways where it helps in the conjugation of toxic substances, facilitating their excretion from the body.

Pharmacodynamics

Benzoate is known for its antimicrobial properties, which are particularly effective against a wide range of fungi and bacteria. Its efficacy as a preservative is due to its ability to penetrate microbial cell membranes and disrupt their metabolic processes. Additionally, it has been observed to modulate various metabolic pathways, particularly those associated with aromatic compound degradation.

Pharmacokinetics

After ingestion, benzoate is rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. It is metabolized primarily in the liver, where it undergoes conjugation with glycine to form hippurate, which is then excreted in the urine. The half-life of benzoate varies depending on individual metabolic rates but is generally short due to its efficient conversion and excretion.

Pregnancy

There is limited data on the use of benzoate in pregnancy. Consultation with healthcare professionals is advised before use.

Breast-feeding

Limited data is available on the excretion of benzoate in breast milk. Caution is recommended when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Dry eye syndrome
• Ocular lubrication
• Thickening agent in pharmaceutical formulations
• Food industry as a stabilizer and emulsifier

Dosage

Children: For paediatric use, refer to specific product guidelines and consult a healthcare professional for appropriate advice.

Adults: For dry eye treatment, apply as needed, typically 1 drop in each affected eye. Refer to specific product guidelines for exact formulation and frequency.

Mechanism of action

Carboxymethylcellulose works by forming a gel-like structure when it interacts with water, which helps retain moisture and provide lubrication. In ophthalmic applications, it acts as a protective agent for the ocular surface, reducing friction and providing comfort to patients with dry eye conditions.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic properties of carboxymethylcellulose are primarily related to its ability to increase viscosity and improve the stability of formulations. It does not undergo significant systemic absorption and exerts its effects locally, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract and on the ocular surface as a lubricant.

Pharmacokinetics

Carboxymethylcellulose is not absorbed significantly through the gastrointestinal tract when ingested, and its systemic bioavailability is negligible. When used in ophthalmic formulations, it acts locally on the eye without significant systemic effects. The elimination pathway is primarily through natural degradation and excretion of unabsorbed material.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions
• Skin irritation
• Gastrointestinal discomfort

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with known hypersensitivity to cellulose derivatives
• Monitor for allergic reactions

Pregnancy

Carboxymethylcellulose is generally considered safe during pregnancy as it is not absorbed systemically.

Breast-feeding

Carboxymethylcellulose is considered safe during breastfeeding as it is not absorbed systemically.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Eye drops
• Oral suspensions
• Topical gels

Indications

• Acidulant in food and beverages
• Preservative in pharmaceutical formulations
• pH adjuster in various chemical preparations

Dosage

Children: Refer to product-specific guidelines for appropriate dosing based on formulation and indication.

Adults: Refer to product-specific guidelines for appropriate dosing based on formulation and indication.

Mechanism of action

Citric acid acts by chelating metal ions, which can enhance the solubility of certain compounds and improve their bioavailability. It also contributes to the acidity of the environment, which can influence enzymatic activity and metabolic pathways, particularly in the degradation of citronellol.

Pharmacodynamics

Citric acid exhibits mild pharmacological effects primarily attributed to its role in metabolic processes. It aids in the regulation of pH levels, which can impact enzymatic reactions and biochemical pathways. The acid's chelating properties may help to reduce the toxicity of certain metal ions in biological systems.

Pharmacokinetics

Citric acid is rapidly absorbed after oral administration and is metabolized in the liver. It undergoes conversion to various metabolites in the citric acid cycle, contributing to energy production. The elimination primarily occurs through urine, with minimal accumulation in the body.

Pregnancy

Citric acid is generally regarded as safe during pregnancy when used in food amounts. However, consult a healthcare provider for advice on medicinal use.

Breast-feeding

Citric acid is considered safe during breastfeeding when consumed in food amounts. For medicinal use, consult a healthcare provider.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Mechanism of action

The precise mechanism of action is not well-documented in the provided resources. However, compounds with similar molecular structures often interact with biological pathways through modulation of neurotransmitter systems or receptor activity.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics for compounds like Colour typically involve interactions at the cellular level, influencing physiological responses through receptor binding and modulation of signaling pathways. The specific effects and potency would depend on the context of use and formulation.

Pharmacokinetics

Information on the pharmacokinetics of Colour, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, is not provided in the available resources. Generally, pharmacokinetic properties will vary significantly based on formulation and route of administration.

Pregnancy

Safety in pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the benefits outweigh the risks.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised. There are no adequate studies in breastfeeding women.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific drug formulations and guidelines for dosage information.

Adults: Refer to specific drug formulations and guidelines for dosage information.

Mechanism of action

Crystalline forms of drugs can affect the rate of dissolution and absorption in the body. The mechanism of action depends on the specific drug in crystalline form, as different substances interact with biological systems in various ways, including receptor binding, enzyme inhibition, or modulation of biochemical pathways.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of crystalline drugs are influenced by their solubility, stability, and the rate at which they dissolve in physiological environments. These factors determine the onset, intensity, and duration of the drug's therapeutic effects. Crystalline drugs may offer advantages in terms of prolonged release and controlled dosing compared to amorphous forms.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of crystalline drugs involves their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). Crystalline drugs typically exhibit slow and steady absorption rates due to their solid state. The dissolution rate can significantly affect drug bioavailability, with more soluble crystalline forms providing quicker onset of action. Metabolism and excretion pathways vary depending on the specific drug, and crystalline forms can influence these processes based on their chemical properties.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if clearly needed and the benefits outweigh the risks.

Breast-feeding

There is limited data on the excretion of crystals in breast milk. Caution is advised.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from light and moisture. Ensure the container is tightly closed.

Indications

• Allergic rhinitis
• Allergic conjunctivitis
• Urticaria
• Motion sickness
• Insomnia
• Common cold symptoms

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate dosing information.

Adults: Refer to the relevant clinical guidelines or BNF for specific dosing details.

Mechanism of action

Diphenhydramine works by competitively inhibiting the H1 histamine receptors, thereby preventing the action of endogenous histamine. This action reduces the physiological effects of histamine, which include vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and bronchoconstriction. Furthermore, diphenhydramine crosses the blood-brain barrier and exerts central nervous system effects, leading to sedation.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of diphenhydramine are characterized by its ability to reduce allergic symptoms by blocking the effects of histamine at H1 receptors. Its sedative effects arise from its antagonistic action at central H1 receptors and its anticholinergic properties. The drug also possesses some antiserotonergic and local anesthetic effects, which may contribute to its overall therapeutic profile.

Pharmacokinetics

Diphenhydramine is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma concentrations reached within 1 to 4 hours after oral administration. It has a relatively short half-life of approximately 4 to 8 hours, and it is extensively metabolized in the liver, primarily via cytochrome P450 enzymes. The metabolites are then excreted primarily in urine. The drug has a volume of distribution of about 3 to 5 L/kg, indicating extensive distribution in body tissues.

Contra-indications

• Hypersensitivity to diphenhydramine or any excipients in the formulation
• Severe asthma or bronchial hyperreactivity
• Newborns and premature infants

Adverse effects

• Drowsiness
• Dizziness
• Dry mouth
• Constipation
• Urinary retention
• Blurred vision
• Increased appetite
• Allergic reactions including rash and anaphylaxis

Interactions

• CNS depressants (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines) may enhance sedative effects
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) may prolong and intensify anticholinergic effects
• Other anticholinergic drugs may increase the risk of side effects

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with glaucoma, prostatic hypertrophy, or urinary retention
• Elderly patients may be more sensitive to the sedative effects
• Avoid in patients with severe liver disease due to altered metabolism

Pregnancy

Diphenhydramine is classified as a category B drug; no evidence of harm in animal studies, but should be used during pregnancy only if clearly needed.

Breast-feeding

Diphenhydramine is excreted in breast milk; caution is advised as it may cause sedation in nursing infants.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and heat. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Oral tablets
• Liquid formulations
• Intramuscular injection
• Topical formulations (cream, gel)

Indications

• Enhancement of taste in food and beverages
• Improvement of palatability in nutritional products
• Masking undesirable flavors in medications

Dosage

Children: There is no specific pediatric dosage for flavor agents as they are used as needed to improve the taste of food and beverages.

Adults: There is no specific dosage for flavor agents as they are used as needed to achieve the desired taste and aroma in food and beverages.

Mechanism of action

Flavor compounds interact with taste receptors on the tongue, stimulating the sensory neurons responsible for taste perception. This interaction influences the overall flavor profile of food and beverages, enhancing the eating experience. Some flavors may also have a psychological effect, stimulating appetite or evoking pleasant memories associated with certain tastes.

Pharmacodynamics

While flavor agents are primarily used for sensory enhancement in food, their pharmacodynamic effects are minimal as they are not designed to elicit a pharmacological response. However, certain flavors may influence digestion and metabolism indirectly by enhancing saliva production or affecting gut motility. The enjoyment of flavored products can also lead to increased food intake and satisfaction.

Pharmacokinetics

Flavour compounds are typically ingested and metabolized by the body. Their absorption rates can vary depending on their chemical structure and formulation. Once ingested, they may be rapidly metabolized in the liver and other tissues, with excretion primarily via urine. The specific pharmacokinetic profiles of flavor agents can vary significantly based on their source and chemical properties.

Pregnancy

Flavours are generally considered safe for use during pregnancy, but specific assessments should be made based on the type of flavouring agent.

Breast-feeding

Most flavouring agents are deemed safe during breastfeeding, although it's advisable to consult healthcare professionals regarding specific ingredients.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight and heat sources. Ensure that the container is tightly sealed to prevent contamination.

Indications

• Topical analgesic for muscle and joint pain
• Cough suppressant in cough drops and lozenges
• Relief of minor throat irritation
• Cooling agent in various cosmetic and personal care products

Dosage

Children: Refer to BNF for Children for specific dosing guidelines, as doses may vary based on age and formulation.

Adults: For topical use, apply a thin layer to the affected area not more than 3 to 4 times daily. For cough drops, follow the product-specific instructions as per the formulation.

Mechanism of action

Menthol acts as an agonist for the transient receptor potential subtype M8 (TRPM8), a non-selective cation channel that is activated by cold temperatures. This activation leads to calcium influx in mast cells, inducing the release of histamine, which can trigger allergic responses such as urticaria, asthma, and rhinitis. Menthol's ability to induce histamine release via TRPM8 suggests potential therapeutic applications for TRPM8 antagonists in managing cold- and menthol-induced allergies.

Pharmacodynamics

Menthol produces a cooling effect by stimulating sensory neurons that convey cold sensations. It interacts with TRPM8 channels, leading to the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that can result in vasodilation and increased blood flow to the area of application. This cooling sensation can provide symptomatic relief in conditions characterized by pain or irritation.

Pharmacokinetics

Menthol is absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes, with systemic effects depending on the route of administration. Its bioavailability can vary, and it is metabolized primarily in the liver. The elimination half-life and excretion pathways have not been extensively characterized, but menthol is generally considered to have a rapid onset of action with effects lasting for a few hours.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions
• Urticaria
• Asthma
• Rhinitis
• Skin irritation

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with known allergies to menthol or related compounds
• May exacerbate asthma in sensitive individuals

Pregnancy

There are no well-controlled studies of menthol in pregnant women. Menthol should be used during pregnancy only if clearly needed.

Breast-feeding

Menthol is excreted in breast milk. Caution should be exercised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Topical ointment
• Cream
• Liquid

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific drug formulations and product labels as purified substances can vary widely in their use and dosing.

Adults: Refer to specific drug formulations and product labels as purified substances can vary widely in their use and dosing.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action for purified compounds varies widely depending on the specific substance. Generally, purified drugs exert their effects by interacting with specific biological targets, such as receptors, enzymes, or ion channels, leading to a desired therapeutic effect. This interaction can involve binding to receptors to activate or inhibit signaling pathways, modulating enzymatic activity, or altering physiological processes.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics describes the effects of a drug on the body and the relationship between drug concentration and effect. For purified drugs, this can involve dose-response relationships and the time course of their action. The purified form often enhances potency and reduces variability in response among patients, which can lead to more predictable therapeutic outcomes. The overall effect is determined by the drug's affinity for its target, the efficacy of the drug-receptor interaction, and the downstream signaling pathways activated as a result of this interaction.

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics involves the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of a drug. For purified substances, absorption can be more efficient due to the absence of impurities that may affect solubility or stability. Distribution may also be enhanced, leading to higher bioavailability. Metabolism can be influenced by the structure of the purified compound, as it may be metabolized more readily by liver enzymes. Excretion typically occurs through the kidneys or liver, depending on the molecular characteristics of the purified drug.

Pregnancy

Consult with a healthcare professional, as the safety of purified forms of medications during pregnancy may vary depending on the specific substance.

Breast-feeding

Consult with a healthcare professional, as the safety of purified forms of medications during breastfeeding may vary depending on the specific substance.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from light and moisture, and keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Solvent for pharmaceuticals
• Preparation of tinctures
• Antiseptic applications
• Industrial uses

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific medical guidelines and consult a pediatric pharmacologist.

Adults: Refer to specific medical guidelines for appropriate use as a solvent or antiseptic.

Mechanism of action

Ethanol, the active component of rectified spirits, influences the central nervous system by acting primarily as a positive allosteric modulator of the GABA-A receptor, enhancing inhibitory neurotransmission. It also affects various neurotransmitter systems, including dopamine and serotonin pathways, which contributes to its psychoactive effects.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of rectified spirits are dose-dependent, with low doses resulting in mild euphoria and relaxation, and higher doses leading to significant sedation, impaired motor function, and altered cognitive function. Chronic use can lead to tolerance and dependence, along with a range of health issues, including liver disease and neurological impairment.

Pharmacokinetics

Ethanol is absorbed rapidly through the gastrointestinal tract, with peak blood concentrations typically occurring within 30 to 90 minutes after ingestion. It is metabolized primarily in the liver by enzymes such as alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase, and its elimination follows zero-order kinetics at higher concentrations. The half-life of ethanol can vary widely based on individual factors such as metabolic rate, age, and liver health.

Pregnancy

Data on the safety of rectified alcohol during pregnancy is limited. It is advisable to avoid use during pregnancy due to potential risks to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised when using rectified alcohol while breastfeeding, as it may affect lactation and the nursing infant.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep tightly closed and out of reach of children.

Indications

• Management of diabetes
• Weight management
• Sugar substitutes in food and beverages

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosage information. Caution is advised when using artificial sweeteners in children.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosage information. Generally, saccharin is used in very small quantities due to its high sweetness intensity.

Mechanism of action

Saccharin activates specific T2R bitter taste receptors, contributing to the perception of sweetness and the bitter aftertaste associated with saccharin and acesulfame-K. Additionally, it has been shown to stimulate transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) receptors, which are present in taste receptor cells and nerve terminals throughout the oral cavity. The activation of TRPV1 may play a role in the aftertaste or metallic taste sensation often reported with saccharin consumption.

Pharmacodynamics

Due to its high sweetness intensity, saccharin can effectively mimic the taste of sugar without contributing to caloric intake. It alters taste perception by engaging receptors responsible for taste sensation, particularly affecting the sweet and bitter taste pathways. Its effect on TRPV1 receptors suggests a complex interaction that may enhance the sensory experience of sweetness while also causing potential off-tastes.

Pharmacokinetics

Saccharin is not metabolized by the body and is excreted unchanged in the urine. Its absorption occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, but due to its non-nutritive nature, it does not undergo significant metabolic processes. The pharmacokinetic profile indicates that saccharin has a rapid onset of action with a prolonged sweet taste effect, although individual responses may vary.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions
• Headaches
• Nausea
• Gastrointestinal disturbances

Precautions

• Use with caution in individuals with a history of hypersensitivity to saccharin or its derivatives
• Avoid excessive consumption to prevent possible adverse effects

Pregnancy

Saccharin is generally not recommended during pregnancy due to potential risks, although human studies have shown no clear evidence of harm.

Breast-feeding

Saccharin is excreted in breast milk; caution is advised when used by nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light.

Formulations

• Tablets
• Powder

Indications

• Antiseptic use
• Solvent in pharmaceutical preparations
• Management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome
• Treatment of methanol poisoning (as an antidote)

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific medical guidelines or formularies for dosing information, as it varies widely based on the indication and formulation used.

Adults: Refer to specific medical guidelines or formularies for dosing information, as it varies widely based on the indication and formulation used.

Mechanism of action

Ethanol acts primarily by enhancing the effects of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the GABA-A receptor, leading to increased inhibitory neurotransmission. It also inhibits the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, which contributes to its depressant effects. Additionally, ethanol affects the release of various neurotransmitters, including dopamine, which plays a role in the reward pathway and contributes to its addictive properties.

Pharmacodynamics

Ethanol's pharmacodynamic effects are dose-dependent. Low doses can produce mild euphoria, relaxation, and impaired motor coordination. As the dose increases, effects can progress to sedation, respiratory depression, and potentially coma or death in cases of severe intoxication. Chronic use can lead to tolerance and dependence, with withdrawal symptoms occurring upon cessation.

Pharmacokinetics

Ethanol is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak blood concentrations occurring within 30 to 90 minutes after ingestion. It is distributed throughout body water, with a volume of distribution of approximately 0.5 to 0.7 L/kg. Ethanol is metabolized primarily by the liver through the action of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase, with a typical elimination rate of 10 to 20 mg/dL per hour. It is excreted in urine, breath, and sweat.

Adverse effects

• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Dizziness
• Headache
• Irritation of mucous membranes
• Depression of the central nervous system

Interactions

• Increased sedation with other CNS depressants
• Potential enhancement of effects of certain medications metabolized by the liver

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with a history of substance abuse
• Monitor for signs of excessive sedation or respiratory depression
• Avoid use in patients with known hypersensitivity to alcohol or other ingredients

Pregnancy

Alcohol is generally advised against during pregnancy due to risks of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and other complications.

Breast-feeding

Alcohol can pass into breast milk, and breastfeeding mothers should limit intake to avoid potential effects on the infant.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light and out of reach of children. Keep tightly closed.

Formulations

• Spirit (ethanol-based liquid)
• Spirit of ammonia
• Spirit of camphor
• Spirit of turpentine

Indications

• Nutritional supplementation
• Antioxidant support
• Heart health
• Anti-inflammatory properties
• Skin health
• Digestive health

Dosage

Children: As strawberries are generally safe and nutritious, they can be introduced to children as part of a healthy diet. Portion sizes should be age-appropriate, and whole strawberries should be cut to prevent choking hazards in younger children.

Adults: Strawberries can be consumed as part of a balanced diet. Recommended servings vary, but a common suggestion is about one cup of fresh strawberries daily to obtain health benefits.

Mechanism of action

The health benefits of strawberries can be attributed to their high content of polyphenols, particularly anthocyanins, which have antioxidant properties. These compounds may help reduce oxidative stress and inflammation in the body, potentially lowering the risk of chronic diseases. The vitamins and minerals present in strawberries, such as vitamin C and manganese, also play essential roles in various metabolic processes.

Pharmacodynamics

Strawberries exhibit multiple pharmacodynamic effects. The antioxidants in strawberries help neutralize free radicals, which can prevent cellular damage and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Additionally, the fiber content aids in digestive health and may help regulate blood sugar levels, while the anti-inflammatory properties can support cardiovascular health and contribute to overall wellness.

Pharmacokinetics

The bioavailability of nutrients from strawberries can vary based on factors like preparation and individual metabolism. Vitamins such as vitamin C are readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The various phytonutrients, including flavonoids, are metabolized in the liver, where they can exert their beneficial effects on health. The absorption and metabolism of these compounds can be influenced by factors such as the presence of other foods and individual digestive health.

Adverse effects

• Allergic reactions (e.g., skin rash, itching)
• Gastrointestinal upset (e.g., diarrhea, nausea)

Precautions

• Monitor for allergic reactions in individuals with known sensitivities to strawberries
• Use with caution in individuals with oxalate kidney stones due to high oxalate content

Pregnancy

Strawberries are generally considered safe to consume during pregnancy as they provide essential nutrients and hydration.

Breast-feeding

Strawberries can be consumed during breastfeeding. However, monitor for any signs of allergy in the infant, especially if there is a family history of food allergies.

Storage

Store strawberries in a cool, dry place. Refrigeration can help extend freshness, ideally in a breathable container to prevent mold.

Formulations

• Fresh strawberries
• Frozen strawberries
• Strawberry puree
• Strawberry juice
• Strawberry jams and preserves

Dosage

Children: Refer to product-specific guidelines or consult a healthcare professional.

Adults: Refer to product-specific guidelines or consult a healthcare professional.

Pregnancy

There is limited data on the safety of Sunset during pregnancy, thus it should be used only if clearly needed and prescribed by a healthcare provider.

Breast-feeding

Due to the lack of sufficient studies, it is advised to consult a healthcare professional before using Sunset while breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and out of reach of children.

Pregnancy

No specific data available, consult a healthcare professional.

Breast-feeding

No specific data available, consult a healthcare professional.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light.

Mechanism of action

When administered rectally, glycerin exerts a hygroscopic and/or local irritant action, drawing water from the tissues into the feces and reflexively stimulating evacuation. Glycerin decreases intraocular pressure by creating an osmotic gradient between the blood and intraocular fluid, causing fluid to move out of the aqueous and vitreous humors into the bloodstream. Glycerin (glycerol) and sorbitol are hyperosmotic laxatives. When administered rectally, glycerin and sorbitol exert a hygroscopic and/or local irritant action, drawing water from the tissues into the feces and reflexly stimulating evacuation. The extent to which the simple physical distention of the rectum and the hygroscopic and/or local irritant actions are responsible for the laxative effects of some of these drugs is not known. Only extremely high oral doses of sorbitol (25 g daily) or glycerin exert laxative action. /Glycerin/ decreases intraocular pressure by creating an osmotic gradient between the blood and intraocular fluid, causing fluid to move out of the aqueous and vitreous humors into the bloodstream. The physicochemical effects of a series of alkanols, alkanediols and glycerol on erythrocyte shape and hemolysis at 4 and 20 degrees C were examined. We calculated the dielectric constant of the incubation medium, Ds, and the dielectric constant of the erythrocyte membrane Dm in the presence of organic solutes. The ratio Ds/Dm = -38.48 at 20 degrees C defines the normal biconcave shape in a medium without hemolytic agents. A decrease in Ds/Dm favors externalization or internalization with consequent hemolysis. Alkanols and alkanediols convert biconcave erythrocytes into echinocytes, which is accompanied by an increase in the projected surface area. Glycerol converts biconcave erythrocytes into stomatocytes, which was accompanied by a marginal decrease in the projected surface area. Progressive externalization in alkanols and alkanediols or internalization in glycerol resulted in a decrease in the projected surface area and the formation of smooth spheres. The degree of shape change induced was related to the degree of hemolysis and the ratio Ds/Dm. A decrease in temperature reduced both the degree of shape change and hemolysis. .../Thus/ physicochemical toxicity may be a result of a temperature dependent hydrophobic interaction between the organic solutes and the membrane and is best interpreted by the ability of the solutes to change Ds and Dm.

Pharmacodynamics

Glycerin is commonly classified as an osmotic laxative but may act additionally or alternatively through its local irritant effects; it may also have lubricating and fecal softening actions. Glycerin suppositories usually work within 15 to 30 minutes.

Mechanism of action

Exposure to low temperatures often causes allergic responses or urticaria. Similarly, menthol, a common food additive is also known to cause urticaria, asthma, and rhinitis. However, despite the obvious clinical implications, the molecular mechanisms responsible for inducing allergic responses to low temperatures and menthol have not been determined. Because a non-selective cation channel, transient receptor potential subtype M8 (TRPM8) is activated by cold and menthol, we hypothesized that this channel mediates cold- and menthol-induced histamine release in mast cells. Here, we report that TRPM8 is expressed in the basophilic leukemia mast cell line, RBL-2H3, and that exposure to menthol or low temperatures induced Ca(2+) influx in RBL-2H3 cells, which was reversed by a TRPM8 blocker. Furthermore, menthol, a TRPM8 agonist, induced the dose-dependent release of histamine from RBL-2H3 cells. When TRPM8 transcripts were reduced by siRNA (small interfering RNA), menthol- and cold-induced Ca(2+) influx and histamine release were significantly reduced. In addition, subcutaneous injection of menthol evoked scratching, a typical histamine-induced response which was reversed by a TRPM8 blocker. Thus, our findings indicate that TRPM8 mediates the menthol- and cold-induced allergic responses of mast cells, and suggest that TRPM8 antagonists be viewed as potential treatments for cold- and menthol-induced allergies. /DL-Menthol/ Menthol's characteristic cooling sensation is due, in part, to the activation of sensory neurons generally termed transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, in particular transient receptor potential melastatin family member 8 (TRPM8) and transient receptor potential subfamily A, member 1 (TRPA1). Menthol acts upon TRPM8 receptors by rapidly increasing intracellular calcium and mobilizing calcium flux through the channels to induce cold response signals at the application site. Aside from its cold-inducing sensation capabilities, menthol exhibits cytotoxic effects in cancer cells, induces reduction in malignant cell growth, and engages in synergistic excitation of GABA receptors and sodium ion channels resulting in analgesia. /DL-Menthol/ In recent years, the transient receptor potential melastatin member 8 (TRPM8) channel has emerged as a promising prognostic marker and putative therapeutic target in prostate cancer. We have found that forced overexpression of TRPM8 in PC-3 cells can inhibit the cell proliferation and motility probably through the TRPM8 activation. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether activating the TRPM8 channel by its selective agonist menthol can inhibit the proliferation and motility of androgen-independent prostate cancer (AIPC) with remarkable expression of TRPM8. Menthol is a naturally occurring compound, which has been widely used in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products, and also as flavoring in food. DU145 cells are androgen-independent but have a remarkable expression of TRPM8. The demonstration of the existence of TRPM8 and the absence of TRPA1 in DU145 cells provided the foundation for the following experiments, because both TRPM8 and TRPA1 are molecular targets of menthol. The outcome of MTT assay indicated that menthol inhibited the cell growth (p < 0.01). Cell cycle distribution and scratch assay analysis revealed that menthol induced cell cycle arrest at the G(0)/G(1) phase (p < 0.01). Furthermore, menthol inhibited the migration of DU145 cells by downregulating the focal-adhesion kinase. So it suggests that the activation of the existing TRPM8 channels may serve as a potential and pragmatic treatment for those AIPC with remarkable expression of TRPM8, and menthol is a useful compound for future development as an anticancer agent. /DL-Menthol/

Mechanism of action

...it has been shown that the activation of particular T2R bitter taste receptors is partially involved with the bitter aftertaste sensation of saccharin and acesulfame-K. ... /This study/ addressed the question of whether /they/ could stimulate transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) receptors, as these receptors are activated by a large range of structurally different chemicals. Moreover, TRPV1 receptors and/or their variants are found in taste receptor cells and in nerve terminals throughout the oral cavity. Hence, TRPV1 activation could be involved in the ... aftertaste or even contribute to the poorly understood metallic taste sensation. Using Ca(2+) imaging on TRPV1 receptors heterologously expressed in the human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells and on dissociated primary sensory neurons,... /it was found/ that in both systems, .../sweeteners/ activate TRPV1 receptors, and, moreover, they sensitize these channels to acid and heat. ... /it was/also found that TRPV1 receptors were activated by CuSO(4), ZnSO(4), and FeSO(4), three salts known to produce a metallic taste sensation. In summary, .../the/ results identify a novel group of compounds that activate TRPV1 and, consequently, provide a molecular mechanism that may account for off tastes of sweeteners and metallic tasting salts.