Dentogel

Indications

• Ventricular arrhythmias, especially after myocardial infarction
• Local anesthesia for minor surgical procedures
• Pain relief in conditions such as oral ulceration and inflammation

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children

Adults: For ventricular arrhythmias, an initial intravenous bolus of 100 mg is given over a few minutes, followed by a continuous infusion of 4 mg/minute for 30 minutes, then reduced to 2 mg/minute for 2 hours, and finally to 1 mg/minute. The total dose should not exceed 3 mg/kg.

Mechanism of action

Lidocaine hydrochloride exerts its effects by blocking voltage-gated sodium channels in neurons, which inhibits the influx of sodium ions during depolarization. This action prevents the generation and conduction of nerve impulses, resulting in local anesthesia. The drug also stabilizes neuronal membranes and decreases the excitability of both peripheral and central nerves.

Pharmacodynamics

The onset of action for lidocaine is rapid, typically occurring within minutes of administration, with a duration of action that can vary based on the route of administration and the presence of additives such as epinephrine. Lidocaine can be used to manage ventricular arrhythmias by decreasing myocardial excitability and conduction velocity, thus stabilizing the cardiac rhythm.

Pharmacokinetics

Lidocaine is well-absorbed when administered intravenously, with peak plasma concentrations occurring shortly after infusion. It is extensively metabolized in the liver via cytochrome P450 enzymes, primarily CYP1A2 and CYP3A4, producing active metabolites. The elimination half-life of lidocaine ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours, and it is excreted mainly in urine. Caution is advised in cases of hepatic impairment, as the metabolism of lidocaine may be significantly reduced, leading to increased plasma levels.

Contra-indications

• All grades of atrioventricular block
• Severe myocardial depression
• Sino-atrial disorders

Adverse effects

• Anxiety
• Arrhythmias
• Cardiac arrest
• Circulatory collapse
• Confusion
• Dizziness
• Drowsiness
• Euphoric mood
• Headache
• Hypotension (may lead to cardiac arrest)
• Loss of consciousness
• Methaemoglobinaemia
• Muscle twitching
• Nausea
• Neurological disorders
• Tinnitus
• Tremor
• Blurred vision
• Vomiting

Interactions

• Antiarrhythmics

Precautions

• Acute porphyrias (consider infusion of glucose for its anti-porphyrinogenic effects)
• Congestive cardiac failure (consider lower dose)
• Post cardiac surgery (consider lower dose)
• Monitor serum potassium
• Caution in hepatic impairment (risk of increased exposure)
• Caution in renal impairment (possible accumulation of lidocaine and active metabolites)

Pregnancy

Crosses the placenta but not known to be harmful in animal studies-use if benefit outweighs risk.

Breast-feeding

Present in milk but amount too small to be harmful.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Lidocaine hydrochloride 5 mg per 1 ml solution for injection
• Lidocaine hydrochloride 10 mg per 1 ml solution for injection
• Lidocaine hydrochloride 10% solution for oral use

Indications

• Choline deficiency
• Support in liver function
• Neurological health, including cognitive function
• Fat metabolism disorders

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing guidelines.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing guidelines.

Mechanism of action

Choline is a major component of phosphatidylcholine, which is essential for maintaining cell membrane integrity, facilitating information flow, and intracellular communication. It is involved in the synthesis of acetylcholine, a key neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Choline deficiency can lead to apoptosis by affecting cell membrane composition and increasing ceramide levels, which activates apoptotic pathways. Additionally, choline is a precursor to betaine, which helps regulate homocysteine levels, thus reducing cardiovascular risks.

Pharmacodynamics

Choline is crucial for proper nerve conduction in the central nervous system as it is a precursor for acetylcholine. It supports liver function, gallbladder regulation, and lipid metabolism. Adequate choline levels are associated with the prevention of excessive fat accumulation in the liver and may mitigate conditions such as Parkinsonism and tardive dyskinesia. Deficiencies can lead to serious health problems, including liver dysfunction and stunted growth.

Pharmacokinetics

Choline is absorbed in the intestines and distributed throughout the body, where it is utilized in various metabolic pathways. The liver plays a central role in choline metabolism, converting it into phosphatidylcholine and other metabolites. The half-life and excretion pathways of choline are not well defined but are influenced by dietary intake, physiological state, and individual metabolism.

Interactions

• corticosteroids+cholinesalicylate: Unknown (decreases concentration)

Pregnancy

Choline is generally considered safe during pregnancy, as it is essential for fetal development, particularly for brain development and function. However, it is important to adhere to recommended dietary allowances.

Breast-feeding

Choline is important during breastfeeding as it supports infant brain development. Adequate intake is recommended for nursing mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Local anesthesia for surgical and diagnostic procedures
• Management of certain types of arrhythmias
• Topical anesthesia for mucosal surfaces

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific pediatric dosing information.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing information.

Mechanism of action

Lidocaine acts by diffusing through neural sheaths into the axoplasm, where it is ionized and binds reversibly to sodium ion channels on nerve cell membranes. This binding keeps the channels in an open state, preventing nerve depolarization and thus blocking action potential transmission. This mechanism facilitates its anesthetic effects by aborting pain signal generation and preventing their transmission to the brain.

Pharmacodynamics

Excessive blood levels of lidocaine may lead to changes in cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and mean arterial pressure. The block of autonomic fibers and the direct depressant effect on the cardiovascular system can cause hypotension when recommended dosages are exceeded. Lidocaine's action on sodium channels affects cardiac myocytes, potentially leading to hypotension, bradycardia, myocardial depression, arrhythmias, or even cardiac arrest.

Pharmacokinetics

Lidocaine is absorbed rapidly and widely distributed throughout the body. It undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism, primarily by cytochrome P450 enzymes, leading to various metabolites. Its elimination half-life is approximately 1.5 to 2 hours, but this can vary based on factors such as hepatic blood flow and enzyme activity.

Contra-indications

• Hypersensitivity to lidocaine or any amide local anesthetics
• Severe degree of heart block
• A history of malignant hyperthermia

Adverse effects

• Hypotension
• Bradycardia
• Myocardial depression
• Cardiac arrhythmias
• CNS stimulation followed by depression
• Dizziness
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Tinnitus

Interactions

• cimetidine+lidocaine: Moderate (increases exposure)
• cobicistat+lidocaine: Unknown (increases concentration)
• lidocaine+suxamethonium: Unknown (increases effects)
• ciprofloxacin+lidocaine: Unknown (increases exposure)

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with hepatic impairment
• Use with caution in patients with cardiac conditions
• Monitor for signs of systemic toxicity, especially after high doses or rapid administration

Pregnancy

Lidocaine should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus. It is categorized as FDA pregnancy category B.

Breast-feeding

Lidocaine is excreted in breast milk, but at therapeutic doses, it is not expected to cause adverse effects in nursing infants. Monitor infants for any signs of sedation.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and heat. Protect from light. Do not freeze.

Formulations

• Lidocaine injection solution
• Lidocaine cream
• Lidocaine gel
• Lidocaine patch

Indications

• Pain relief
• Fever reduction
• Inflammatory conditions such as arthritis
• Prevention of cardiovascular events in certain populations

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing guidelines.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing guidelines.

Mechanism of action

Salicylate works by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), which is involved in the synthesis of prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are lipid compounds that mediate inflammation, pain, and fever. By decreasing the production of these compounds, salicylate effectively reduces inflammation and provides analgesic and antipyretic effects.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of salicylate include analgesia, antipyresis, and anti-inflammatory action. It reduces the sensitivity of pain receptors and inhibits the generation of pain signals. The antipyretic effect is achieved through action on the hypothalamus, leading to peripheral vasodilation and sweating, thereby reducing body temperature. The drug also modulates the immune response, contributing to its anti-inflammatory properties.

Pharmacokinetics

Salicylate is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract following oral administration. Peak plasma concentrations are typically reached within 1 to 2 hours. It is extensively metabolized in the liver, primarily through conjugation, and its metabolites are excreted in the urine. The elimination half-life of salicylate varies depending on the dose and the presence of other medications, averaging around 2 to 3 hours at low doses, but can be prolonged at higher doses due to saturation of metabolic pathways.

Contra-indications

• Hypersensitivity to salicylates
• Active peptic ulcer disease
• Severe hepatic impairment
• Severe renal impairment
• Bleeding disorders
• Children with viral infections (due to risk of Reye's syndrome)

Adverse effects

• Gastrointestinal irritation
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Tinnitus
• Hearing loss
• Allergic reactions
• Rash
• Asthma exacerbation
• Gastric ulceration

Interactions

• Anticoagulants (increased bleeding risk)
• Methotrexate (increased toxicity)
• NSAIDs (increased gastrointestinal side effects)
• Diuretics (reduced efficacy)
• Alcohol (increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding)

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with a history of gastrointestinal disease
• Monitor renal function in long-term use
• Caution in patients with asthma or allergies
• Consider alternative therapy in children with viral infections

Pregnancy

Use with caution during pregnancy, particularly in the third trimester, as it may affect fetal development.

Breast-feeding

Salicylate is excreted in breast milk; caution is advised when administering to breastfeeding mothers.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Formulations

• Tablets
• Oral suspension
• Topical preparations
• Suppositories

Mechanism of action

Choline is a major part of the polar head group of phosphatidylcholine. Phosphatidylcholine's role in the maintenance of cell membrane integrity is vital to all of the basic biological processes: information flow, intracellular communication and bioenergetics. Inadequate choline intake would negatively affect all these processes. Choline is also a major part of another membrane phospholipid, sphingomyelin, also important for the maintenance of cell structure and function. It is noteworthy and not surprising that choline deficiency in cell culture causes apoptosis or programmed cell death. This appears to be due to abnormalities in cell membrane phosphatidylcholine content and an increase in ceramide, a precursor, as well as a metabolite, of sphingomyelin. Ceramide accumulation, which is caused by choline deficiency, appears to activate Caspase, a type of enzyme that mediates apoptosis. Betaine or trimethylglycine is derived from choline via an oxidation reaction. Betaine is one of the factors that maintains low levels of homocysteine by resynthesizing L-methionine from homocysteine. Elevated homocysteine levels are a significant risk factor for atherosclerosis, as well as other cardiovascular and neurological disorders. Acetylcholine is one of the major neurotransmitters and requires choline for its synthesis. Adequate acetylcholine levels in the brain are believed to be protective against certain types of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease.

Pharmacodynamics

This compound is needed for good nerve conduction throughout the CNS (central nervous system) as it is a precursor to acetylcholine (ACh). Choline is also needed for gallbladder regulation, liver function and lecithin (a key lipid) formation. Choline also aids in fat and cholesterol metabolism and prevents excessive fat build up in the liver. Choline has been used to mitigate the effects of Parkinsonism and tardive dyskinesia. Choline deficiencies may result in excessive build-up of fat in the liver, high blood pressure, gastric ulcers, kidney and liver dysfunction and stunted growth.

Mechanism of action

Lidocaine is a local anesthetic of the amide type. It is used to provide local anesthesia by nerve blockade at various sites in the body. It does so by stabilizing the neuronal membrane by inhibiting the ionic fluxes required for the initiation and conduction of impulses, thereby effecting local anesthetic action. In particular, the lidocaine agent acts on sodium ion channels located on the internal surface of nerve cell membranes. At these channels, neutral uncharged lidocaine molecules diffuse through neural sheaths into the axoplasm where they are subsequently ionized by joining with hydrogen ions. The resultant lidocaine cations are then capable of reversibly binding the sodium channels from the inside, keeping them locked in an open state that prevents nerve depolarization. As a result, with sufficient blockage, the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron will ultimately not depolarize and will thus fail to transmit an action potential. This facilitates an anesthetic effect by not merely preventing pain signals from propagating to the brain but by aborting their generation in the first place. In addition to blocking conduction in nerve axons in the peripheral nervous system, lidocaine has important effects on the central nervous system and cardiovascular system. After absorption, lidocaine may cause stimulation of the CNS followed by depression and in the cardiovascular system, it acts primarily on the myocardium where it may produce decreases in electrical excitability, conduction rate, and force of contraction. Abnormal, repetitive impulse firing arising from incomplete inactivation of Na+ channels may be involved in several diseases of muscle and nerve, including familial myotonias and neuropathic pain syndromes. Systemic local anesthetics have been shown to have clinical efficacy against myotonias and some forms of neuropathic pain, so we sought to develop an in vitro model to examine the cellular basis for these drugs' effects. In frog sciatic nerves, studied in vitro by the sucrose-gap method, peptide alpha-toxins from sea anemone (ATXII) or scorpion (LQIIa) venom, which inhibit Na+ channel inactivation, induced repetitively firing compound action potentials (CAPs) superimposed on a plateau depolarization lasting several seconds. The initial spike of the CAP was unaffected, but the plateau and repetitive firing were strongly suppressed by 5-30 uM lidocaine. Lidocaine caused a rapid, concentration-dependent decay of the plateau, quantitatively consistent with blockade of open Na(+) channels. Early and late repetitive firing were equally suppressed by lidocaine with IC50 = 10 uM. After washout of lidocaine and LQIIa, the plateau and repetitive firing remained for > 1 hr, showing that lidocaine had not caused dissociation of channel-bound alpha-toxin. These findings indicate that therapeutic concentrations of lidocaine can reverse the "abnormal" features of action potentials caused by non-inactivating Na+ channels without affecting the normal spike component. Lidocaine controls ventricular arrhythmias by suppressing automaticity in the His-Purkinje system and by suppressing spontaneous depolarization of the ventricles during diastole. These effects occur at lidocaine concentrations that do not suppress automaticity of the sinoatrial (SA) node. At therapeutic plasma concentrations, lidocaine has little effect on atrioventricular (AV) node conduction and His-Purkinje conduction in the normal heart. Specialized conducting tissues of the atria are less sensitive to the effects of lidocaine than are those of ventricular tissues. Lidocaine has a variable effect on the effective refractory period (ERP) of the AV node; the drug shortens the ERP and the action potential duration of the His-Purkinje system. Lidocaine does not appear to affect excitability of normal cardiac tissue. Prilocaine and lidocaine are classified as amide-type local anesthetics for which serious adverse effects include methemoglobinemia. Although the hydroly

Pharmacodynamics

Excessive blood levels of lidocaine can cause changes in cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and mean arterial pressure. With central neural blockade these changes may be attributable to the block of autonomic fibers, a direct depressant effect of the local anesthetic agent on various components of the cardiovascular system, and/or the beta-adrenergic receptor stimulating action of epinephrine when present. The net effect is normally a modest hypotension when the recommended dosages are not exceeded. In particular, such cardiac effects are likely associated with the principal effect that lidocaine elicits when it binds and blocks sodium channels, inhibiting the ionic fluxes required for the initiation and conduction of electrical action potential impulses necessary to facilitate muscle contraction. Subsequently, in cardiac myocytes, lidocaine can potentially block or otherwise slow the rise of cardiac action potentials and their associated cardiac myocyte contractions, resulting in possible effects like hypotension, bradycardia, myocardial depression, cardiac arrhythmias, and perhaps cardiac arrest or circulatory collapse. Moreover, lidocaine possesses a dissociation constant (pKa) of 7.7 and is considered a weak base. As a result, about 25% of lidocaine molecules will be un-ionized and available at the physiological pH of 7.4 to translocate inside nerve cells, which means lidocaine elicits an onset of action more rapidly than other local anesthetics that have higher pKa values. This rapid onset of action is demonstrated in about one minute following intravenous injection and fifteen minutes following intramuscular injection. The administered lidocaine subsequently spreads rapidly through the surrounding tissues and the anesthetic effect lasts approximately ten to twenty minutes when given intravenously and about sixty to ninety minutes after intramuscular injection. Nevertheless, it appears that the efficacy of lidocaine may be minimized in the presence of inflammation. This effect could be due to acidosis decreasing the amount of un-ionized lidocaine molecules, a more rapid reduction in lidocaine concentration as a result of increased blood flow, or potentially also because of increased production of inflammatory mediators like peroxynitrite that elicit direct actions on sodium channels.