Visking

Indications

• HIV infection
• AIDS-related complex
• Prevention of HIV infection in high-risk populations (as part of PrEP)
• Post-exposure prophylaxis in healthcare settings

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for specific dosing recommendations tailored to paediatric patients.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing recommendations based on clinical context and patient factors.

Mechanism of action

Abacavir is phosphorylated to its active form, abacavir triphosphate, which competes with deoxyadenosine triphosphate for incorporation into viral DNA. Once incorporated, it causes chain termination during the synthesis of viral DNA by reverse transcriptase, thus inhibiting viral replication.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of abacavir are characterized by its ability to inhibit the replication of HIV, leading to a decrease in viral load in the body. Its effectiveness is measured by the reduction in HIV RNA levels in the plasma and improvement in immunological markers such as CD4 cell counts. The drug has a variable response based on genetic factors, particularly the presence of the HLA-B*5701 allele, which can lead to hypersensitivity reactions.

Pharmacokinetics

Abacavir is well-absorbed following oral administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring approximately 1 to 2 hours after dosing. It has a bioavailability of approximately 83% and is widely distributed in body tissues. The drug undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism, primarily by the enzyme UGT2B7, and is eliminated through urine and feces. The elimination half-life of abacavir ranges from 1.5 to 5 hours, necessitating dosing adjustments in patients with hepatic impairment.

Pregnancy

Consult relevant guidelines and clinical literature for safety during pregnancy.

Breast-feeding

Consult relevant guidelines and clinical literature for safety during breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Indications

• Bronchial asthma
• Chronic bronchitis
• Cough
• Respiratory tract infections
• Mucus hypersecretion

Dosage

Children: Refer to pediatric guidelines for specific dosing based on age and condition.

Adults: Dosage varies based on formulation and preparation; refer to specific product guidelines or consult a healthcare professional.

Mechanism of action

Adhatoda exerts its effects primarily through the inhibition of certain enzymes and the modulation of neurotransmitter pathways. The active alkaloids, particularly vasicine, act as bronchodilators by relaxing bronchial smooth muscle, thereby facilitating easier airflow in the lungs. Additionally, these compounds may have anti-inflammatory properties, which help reduce bronchial inflammation and mucus secretion.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic profile of Adhatoda includes its role as an expectorant, promoting the clearance of mucus from the airways. Its bronchodilator effect improves respiratory function, making it beneficial in conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Furthermore, its anti-inflammatory properties can help alleviate symptoms associated with respiratory tract infections.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of Adhatoda, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, are not extensively documented in modern pharmacological literature. However, traditional uses suggest that the active constituents are absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and exert effects relatively quickly after administration. The metabolic pathways for its principal alkaloids involve hepatic metabolism, and elimination is likely through urine, but specific rates and half-lives remain largely undefined in clinical studies.

Pregnancy

Adhatoda may not be safe during pregnancy; consult a healthcare provider before use.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised when using Adhatoda during breastfeeding; consult a healthcare provider.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Dried leaves
• Powdered form
• Decoction
• Tincture

Indications

• Inflammatory conditions
• Cancer prevention and treatment
• Antioxidant therapy
• Digestive disorders
• Cardiovascular health

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate pediatric dosing recommendations.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing guidelines, as dosages can vary based on the formulation and clinical indication.

Mechanism of action

Curcumin acts as a scavenger of reactive oxygen species, including hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions, and inhibits lipid peroxidation as well as peroxide-induced DNA damage. It exhibits potent anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic effects by modulating various signaling molecules. Curcumin inhibits protein kinases, c-Jun/AP-1 activation, and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 activity, impacting cellular signal transduction pathways related to growth and malignant transformation.

Pharmacodynamics

In experimental animal models, curcumin has demonstrated significant pharmacological effects, such as increasing bile flow and inhibiting inflammation and edema formation. It has been shown to decrease cell proliferation and promote apoptosis in cancer cells. Additionally, curcumin inhibits platelet aggregation induced by arachidonic acid, suggesting its role in cardiovascular health.

Pharmacokinetics

Curcumin's pharmacokinetics are characterized by low bioavailability due to rapid metabolism and systemic elimination. It undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism, leading to the production of several metabolites. The absorption of curcumin can be enhanced by co-administration with piperine. Oral bioavailability remains a challenge, which has led to the exploration of various formulations to improve its therapeutic efficacy.

Adverse effects

• Gastrointestinal disturbances
• Nausea
• Diarrhea
• Allergic reactions

Interactions

• May enhance the effects of anticoagulants
• Potential interaction with antidiabetic medications
• May interfere with the metabolism of certain drugs due to inhibition of cytochrome P450 enzymes

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with gallbladder disease
• Monitor patients on anticoagulant therapy
• Caution in patients with diabetes due to potential hypoglycemic effects

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established, caution is advised.

Breast-feeding

Curcumin may be excreted in breast milk, caution is advised.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from light.

Formulations

• Powder
• Capsules
• Tablets
• Liquid extracts

Indications

• Gastrointestinal disorders (e.g., peptic ulcers, dyspepsia)
• Respiratory conditions (e.g., cough, bronchitis)
• Inflammatory conditions (e.g., arthritis, dermatitis)
• Viral infections (e.g., hepatitis, herpes simplex)

Dosage

Children: Refer to established clinical guidelines for appropriate dosing, as no specific dose is provided.

Adults: Refer to established clinical guidelines for appropriate dosing, as no specific dose is provided.

Mechanism of action

Glycyrrhizin, the active compound in glabra, inhibits the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, leading to increased cortisol levels in tissues. This mechanism helps to reduce inflammation and modulate immune responses. Additionally, glabra exhibits antiviral activity by inhibiting the replication of certain viruses, possibly through interference with viral proteins and host cell interactions.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of glabra are primarily attributed to glycyrrhizin and flavonoids present in the plant. Its anti-inflammatory effects are mediated through the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pathways such as NF-κB. The compound also has expectorant properties, aiding in the relief of cough and respiratory distress by promoting mucus secretion and reducing irritation in the airways.

Pharmacokinetics

Glycyrrhizin is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, and its bioavailability can be influenced by the presence of other food components. Once absorbed, it undergoes hepatic metabolism, with its metabolites excreted primarily through urine. The half-life of glycyrrhizin can vary but is generally several hours, necessitating multiple doses for sustained therapeutic effects. Chronic use may lead to accumulation and potential side effects such as hypertension and hypokalemia due to its mineralocorticoid-like effects.

Pregnancy

The safety of glabra during pregnancy has not been established. It is advisable to avoid its use unless clearly needed.

Breast-feeding

There is limited information on the excretion of glabra in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to breastfeeding mothers.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and direct light. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Adrenal insufficiency
• Chronic inflammatory conditions

Mechanism of action

Glycyrrhizin, the primary active component of Glycyrrhiza, exerts its effects primarily through inhibition of the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2). This inhibition prevents the conversion of active cortisol to inactive cortisone, leading to increased cortisol levels. Elevated cortisol mimics the effects of aldosterone, resulting in sodium retention, potassium excretion, and increased blood pressure. Additionally, licorice has anti-inflammatory and antiviral properties attributed to its ability to modulate various immune pathways and inhibit viral replication.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamic effects of Glycyrrhiza include anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulatory activities. Glycyrrhizin has been shown to reduce inflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators. Its potential antiviral properties are particularly noted in viral infections such as hepatitis C and COVID-19, where it may inhibit viral replication. Furthermore, its ability to enhance the effects of corticosteroids can be beneficial in treating conditions associated with adrenal insufficiency or chronic inflammation.

Pharmacokinetics

Glycyrrhizin is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1-2 hours after oral administration. It undergoes extensive metabolism in the liver, primarily through conjugation processes, leading to the formation of glycyrrhetic acid as a major metabolite. The elimination half-life of glycyrrhizin is approximately 6-8 hours. Glycyrrhiza components are excreted in urine predominantly as conjugated forms. Long-term use can lead to accumulation and potential side effects due to its mineralocorticoid-like effects.

Contra-indications

• Hypertension
• Hypokalemia
• Severe kidney disease
• Pregnancy (due to hormonal effects)

Adverse effects

• Hypertension
• Hypokalemia
• Edema
• Headaches
• Fatigue
• Muscle weakness
• Cardiac arrhythmias (with excessive use)

Interactions

• May enhance the effects of corticosteroids
• May increase the risk of hypokalemia with diuretics
• May interact with anticoagulants, increasing the risk of bleeding
• May affect the metabolism of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4

Precautions

• Use with caution in patients with cardiovascular disease
• Monitor blood pressure and potassium levels during prolonged use
• Not recommended for long-term use without medical supervision

Pregnancy

Glycyrrhiza should be avoided during pregnancy as it may cause hormonal effects that could affect fetal development.

Breast-feeding

Consult a healthcare provider before use while breastfeeding, as safety is not well established.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture.

Formulations

• Dried root
• Extracts (liquid and powdered)
• Teas
• Capsules

Indications

• Respiratory conditions such as bronchitis
• Cough relief
• Digestive disorders
• Antimicrobial support
• Anti-inflammatory purposes

Dosage

Children: Refer to herbal medicine guidelines and consult with a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing.

Adults: Refer to herbal medicine guidelines and consult with a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing.

Mechanism of action

The primary active components of Inula, including inulin and essential oils, exhibit anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and expectorant properties. The mechanism of action is not fully understood, but inulin is known to stimulate the immune system, promote the secretion of mucus in the respiratory tract, and facilitate the expulsion of mucus, thereby aiding in the relief of coughs and respiratory congestion.

Pharmacodynamics

Inula demonstrates a range of pharmacodynamic effects, primarily through its active constituents. Its expectorant properties enhance mucus clearance in the airways, while its anti-inflammatory effects may reduce irritation in respiratory tissues. Additionally, the antimicrobial activity of Inula may help in managing infections, particularly those affecting the respiratory system and gastrointestinal tract.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of Inula are not extensively characterized in scientific literature. However, it is believed that the active compounds are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, with inulin being a soluble fiber that can influence gut microbiota. The metabolism and excretion pathways of Inula's constituents remain largely unexplored, necessitating further research to clarify these aspects.

Pregnancy

There is insufficient reliable information regarding the safety of Inula during pregnancy. It is advisable to avoid its use unless prescribed by a healthcare professional.

Breast-feeding

Due to a lack of adequate studies, the safety of Inula during breastfeeding is not established. Caution is advised, and its use should be avoided unless necessary.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Anxiety
• Insomnia
• Nutritional supplement
• Antioxidant support
• Immune system support

Dosage

Children: Refer to authoritative sources for specific dosing information.

Adults: Refer to authoritative sources for specific dosing information.

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action of Longan is not fully elucidated, but it is believed to exert its effects through the modulation of neurotransmitters, particularly influencing serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) pathways. The fruit is rich in antioxidants, which may contribute to its protective effects against oxidative stress.

Pharmacodynamics

Longan is known for its high content of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, including vitamin C, B vitamins, and polyphenols. These compounds may enhance immune function, promote nervous system health, and improve skin health. Its calming effects may be attributed to constituents that influence neurotransmitter activity.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of Longan is not well-studied, but as a food source, it is likely to be absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract. The bioavailability of its active compounds may vary depending on preparation methods (fresh, dried, or processed). The metabolism and excretion pathways are not clearly defined in the literature.

Pregnancy

Insufficient data on the safety of longa during pregnancy. Consult a healthcare provider before use.

Breast-feeding

Insufficient data on the excretion of longa in human milk. Caution is advised when using during breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• Diarrhea
• Constipation
• Gut dysbiosis
• Support for immune function
• Enhancement of gut health

Dosage

Adults: Refer to specific product guidelines and consult a healthcare professional for dosing recommendations, as doses can vary based on formulation and intended

Mechanism of action

Bifidobacterium longum exerts its beneficial effects primarily through the modulation of the gut microbiota. It helps in the fermentation of dietary fibers, producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) that nourish colon cells and maintain gut barrier integrity. Moreover, it competes for adhesion sites and nutrients against pathogenic bacteria, thereby inhibiting their growth. This strain also has immunomodulatory effects, enhancing the host's immune response by promoting the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines and increasing the activity of immune cells.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of Bifidobacterium longum involve its ability to balance the gut microbiome, enhance mucosal immunity, and improve intestinal permeability. It has been shown to lower the pH of the gut, creating an unfavorable environment for pathogenic organisms. Additionally, it can alleviate symptoms associated with gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), diarrhea, and constipation by promoting regular bowel movements and reducing inflammation in the gut.

Pharmacokinetics

Bifidobacterium longum is not absorbed into the systemic circulation but acts locally within the gastrointestinal tract. Its effects are primarily exerted in the intestines, where it colonizes and interacts with the gut environment. The survival and efficacy of this probiotic can be influenced by factors such as the formulation, dosage, and the individual's existing gut microbiota. Generally, ingestion of probiotics leads to transient colonization, with the bacteria being excreted in feces within a few days after discontinuation of use.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Consult healthcare professionals before use.

Breast-feeding

Safety during breastfeeding has not been established. Consult healthcare professionals before use.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and moisture.

Indications

• Inflammatory conditions
• Antioxidant support
• General health and wellness

Dosage

Children: Refer to established guidelines or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing.

Adults: Refer to established guidelines or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing.

Mechanism of action

While specific mechanisms of action for navasagar are not well-documented in scientific literature, herbal formulations typically exert their effects through multiple pathways, including modulation of immune responses, inhibition of inflammatory mediators, and antioxidant activity. Further research is needed to clarify these mechanisms.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics of navasagar may involve interactions with various biological pathways that influence inflammation and oxidative stress. Its constituents may exhibit synergistic effects that enhance overall therapeutic outcomes, although specific pharmacodynamic profiles are not well-characterized.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of navasagar are not well-studied, and thus, parameters such as absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion remain largely unknown. The bioavailability of herbal components can vary significantly based on the formulation, preparation method, and individual patient factors.

Pregnancy

The safety of navasagar during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

Caution is advised when administering navasagar to breastfeeding mothers, as it is not known if the drug is excreted in human milk.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and heat. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Digestive disorders
• Respiratory conditions
• Antimicrobial therapy
• Anti-inflammatory support
• Stress relief

Dosage

Children: Refer to specific herbal preparation guidelines; there is no standard paediatric dose for Ocimum.

Adults: Refer to specific herbal preparation guidelines; there is no standard adult dose for Ocimum.

Mechanism of action

The pharmacological effects of Ocimum are primarily attributed to its essential oil constituents, such as eugenol, linalool, and other phenolic compounds. These compounds exert their effects through the modulation of various signaling pathways, including the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the promotion of antioxidant defense mechanisms. The antimicrobial properties are believed to arise from the disruption of microbial cell membranes and interference with metabolic processes.

Pharmacodynamics

Ocimum exhibits a range of pharmacodynamic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects. The essential oils have been shown to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, which can be beneficial in managing conditions related to chronic inflammation. Additionally, the herb may promote digestive health by enhancing gastrointestinal motility and reducing symptoms of dyspepsia.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of Ocimum's active constituents vary, but generally, essential oils are readily absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and metabolized in the liver. The bioavailability of these compounds can be influenced by the method of preparation (e.g., fresh, dried, or extract form) and the presence of other food components. The elimination half-life is also variable and dependent on the specific compounds involved.

Pregnancy

Limited data is available on the safety of Ocimum during pregnancy. It is advisable to use with caution and consult a healthcare provider.

Breast-feeding

Due to lack of sufficient evidence, it is recommended to consult a healthcare provider before use during breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• Essential oil
• Dried leaves
• Tincture
• Powder

Indications

• Uncomplicated malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum

Dosage

Children: Refer to the BNF for Children for appropriate dosing in paediatric patients.

Adults: Refer to the BNF for specific dosing recommendations.

Mechanism of action

Piperaquine acts by interfering with the heme detoxification process in the malaria parasite. It accumulates within the food vacuole of the parasite and inhibits the conversion of toxic heme into non-toxic hemozoin. This accumulation of free heme leads to oxidative stress and cellular damage, ultimately resulting in the death of the parasite.

Pharmacodynamics

Piperaquine demonstrates a dose-dependent response in its antimalarial activity. It is effective against the asexual blood stages of Plasmodium species, with a prolonged half-life that allows for once-weekly dosing in some regimens. The drug's efficacy is influenced by the rate of parasite clearance and the patient's immune response.

Pharmacokinetics

Piperaquine is well-absorbed following oral administration, with peak plasma concentrations typically occurring within 4 to 6 hours. It has a long elimination half-life, which can range from 10 to 30 days, allowing for sustained plasma levels. The drug is metabolized in the liver and excreted primarily in the feces, with a smaller fraction eliminated in the urine. Its pharmacokinetics can be significantly affected by drug interactions, particularly those that alter hepatic metabolism.

Interactions

• grapefruit juice: Severe (increases concentration)
• mitotane: Severe (decreases concentration)
• St. John's wort: Severe (decreases concentration)
• rifampicin: Severe (decreases concentration)
• dronedarone: Unknown (increases concentration)
• cobicistat: Unknown (increases concentration)
• crizotinib: Unknown (increases concentration)
• idelalisib: Unknown (increases concentration)
• imatinib: Unknown (increases concentration)
• letermovir: Unknown (increases concentration)

Pregnancy

Consult with a healthcare professional regarding the use of piper during pregnancy.

Breast-feeding

Consult with a healthcare professional regarding the use of piper during breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight.

Formulations

• {'name': 'Piperaquine', 'class': 'Penicillins', 'molecular_formula': 'C38H36N4O4'}

Indications

• Menopausal symptoms
• Hot flashes
• Menstrual irregularities
• Mood swings associated with menopause

Dosage

Children: There is insufficient evidence to support the use of racemosa in children; refer to a healthcare professional for appropriate guidance.

Adults: Refer to a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing guidance, as specific doses can vary based on formulation and indication.

Mechanism of action

The exact mechanism of action of racemosa is not fully understood. However, it is believed to exert its effects by interacting with estrogen receptors and modulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, which may help in balancing hormone levels. It may also possess anti-inflammatory properties and influence neurotransmitter activity, contributing to its effects on mood and well-being.

Pharmacodynamics

Racemosa exhibits phytoestrogenic activity, which means it can mimic estrogen in the body, potentially alleviating menopausal symptoms. Its anti-inflammatory properties may help reduce discomfort associated with menstrual and menopausal symptoms. Additionally, its potential effects on serotonin pathways may influence mood stabilization.

Pharmacokinetics

Racemosa is typically administered orally and is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The bioavailability of its active compounds can be affected by factors such as formulation and individual metabolism. The specific pharmacokinetic parameters like half-life, volume of distribution, and clearance are not well-documented due to the variability in herbal preparations and individual responses.

Pregnancy

The safety of racemosa during pregnancy has not been well established, and it is recommended to avoid use unless specifically advised by a healthcare provider.

Breast-feeding

Due to a lack of sufficient data, it is advisable to avoid the use of racemosa while breastfeeding.

Storage

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Keep out of reach of children.

Dosage

Children: Specific dosing information for paediatric patients is not available. It is advisable to consult paediatric dosing guidelines or healthcare professionals for appropriate dosing recommendations.

Adults: Specific dosing information for adults is not available. It is recommended to refer to clinical guidelines or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate dosing recommendations.

Mechanism of action

The exact mechanism of action of Sanctum is currently unclear. However, it may involve modulation of specific biochemical pathways or receptors that influence physiological processes related to its therapeutic effects. Further studies are needed to elucidate its pharmacological properties.

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics of Sanctum may involve interactions with cellular receptors or enzymes that lead to altered cellular functions. These interactions could affect various biological systems, potentially resulting in therapeutic outcomes. The specific pharmacodynamic profile remains to be characterized.

Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetic properties of Sanctum, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, have not been well-defined in the literature. It is essential to conduct comprehensive studies to determine how the drug behaves in the body and its potential impact on therapeutic effectiveness.

Indications

• Overactive bladder
• Urgency incontinence
• Urinary frequency

Dosage

Children: No established dosing guidelines for paediatric patients are available. Refer to the relevant pediatric guidelines or BNF for Children for appropriate dosing.

Adults: The usual starting dose for adults is 5 mg once daily, which may be increased to 10 mg once daily based on individual response and tolerability.

Mechanism of action

Vesica selectively antagonizes the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, which mediates bladder contraction. By blocking this receptor, vesica decreases detrusor muscle activity, leading to a reduction in the frequency of bladder contractions and an increase in bladder storage capacity.

Pharmacodynamics

The pharmacodynamics of vesica involves its action on the urinary tract, specifically the bladder. It reduces the urgency and frequency of urination by decreasing the contractility of the bladder muscle. This results in improved urinary control and reduced symptoms associated with overactive bladder.

Pharmacokinetics

Vesica is well absorbed after oral administration, with peak plasma concentrations occurring approximately 3 to 8 hours post-dose. It has a half-life of around 45 to 68 hours, allowing for once-daily dosing. The drug is primarily metabolized by the liver through cytochrome P450 enzymes, especially CYP3A4. Excretion occurs mainly via urine, with a small amount excreted unchanged.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if clearly needed and the benefit outweighs the risk.

Breast-feeding

It is not known whether this drug is excreted in human milk. Caution is advised when administering to nursing mothers.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and heat. Keep out of reach of children.

Indications

• Anti-inflammatory conditions
• Oxidative stress-related disorders
• Potential use in chronic diseases with inflammatory components

Dosage

Children: Refer to established guidelines for paediatric dosing as specific dosing information is not available.

Adults: Refer to established guidelines for dosage as specific dosing information is not available.

Mechanism of action

The exact mechanism of action of webbiana is not fully elucidated, but it is believed to involve the modulation of inflammatory pathways and oxidative stress response. Active compounds may interact with various molecular targets, including enzymes and receptors involved in inflammation and cellular signaling.

Pharmacodynamics

Webbiana is thought to exhibit anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators. Its antioxidant activity may help in reducing oxidative damage in tissues, contributing to its therapeutic potential in conditions associated with chronic inflammation.

Pharmacokinetics

Information regarding the pharmacokinetics of webbiana is limited. However, as a plant-derived compound, it is likely to be affected by factors such as extraction methods, bioavailability, and individual metabolic variations. Generally, compounds from plant sources may undergo metabolism in the liver and could exhibit variable absorption and elimination profiles.

Pregnancy

Safety during pregnancy has not been established. Use only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Breast-feeding

It is unknown if webbiana is excreted in human milk. Caution should be exercised when administering to breastfeeding women.

Storage

Store at room temperature, away from moisture and direct sunlight.

Mechanism of action

Curcumin acts as a scavenger of oxygen species, such as hydroxyl radical, superoxide anion, and singlet oxygen and inhibit lipid peroxidation as well as peroxide-induced DNA damage. Curcumin mediates potent anti-inflammatory agent and anti-carcinogenic actions via modulating various signalling molecules. It suppresses a number of key elements in cellular signal transduction pathways pertinent to growth, differentiation, and malignant transformation; it was demonstrated _in vitro_ that curcumin inhibits protein kinases, c-Jun/AP-1 activation, prostaglandin biosynthesis, and the activity and expression of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX)-2. Curcumin, a polyphenolic natural product, exhibits therapeutic activity against a number of diseases, attributed mainly to its chemical structure and unique physical, chemical, and biological properties. It is a diferuloyl methane molecule [1,7-bis (4-hydroxy-3- methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione)] containing two ferulic acid residues joined by a methylene bridge. It has three important functionalities: an aromatic o-methoxy phenolic group, alpha, beta-unsaturated beta-diketo moiety and a seven carbon linker. Extensive research in the last two decades has provided evidence for the role of these different functional groups in its crucial biological activities. A few highlights of chemical structural features associated with the biological activity of curcumin are: The o-methoxyphenol group and methylenic hydrogen are responsible for the antioxidant activity of curcumin, and curcumin donates an electron/ hydrogen atom to reactive oxygen species. Curcumin interacts with a number of biomolecules through non-covalent and covalent binding. The hydrogen bonding and hydrophobicity of curcumin, arising from the aromatic and tautomeric structures along with the flexibility of the linker group are responsible for the non-covalent interactions. The alpha, beta-unsaturated beta-diketone moiety covalently interacts with protein thiols, through Michael reaction. The beta-diketo group forms chelates with transition metals, thereby reducing the metal induced toxicity and some of the metal complexes exhibit improved antioxidant activity as enzyme mimics. New analogues with improved activity are being developed with modifications on specific functional groups of curcumin... The present study demonstrates that curcumin acts as pro-oxidant and sensitizes human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cells (A549) to apoptosis via intracellular redox status mediated pathway. Results indicated that curcumin induced cell toxicity (light microscopy and MTT assay) and apoptosis (AnnexinV-FITC/PI labeling and caspase-3 activity) in these cells. These events seem to be mediated through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and superoxide radicals (SOR) and enhanced levels of lipid peroxidation. These changes were accompanied by increase in oxidized glutathione (GSSG), reduced glutathione (GSH) and gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (gamma-GCS) activity, but decrease in GSH/GSSG ratio. The induction of apoptosis and decrease in GSH/GSSG ratio was also accompanied by sustained phosphorylation and activation of p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK). On the other hand, addition of N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), an antioxidant, blocked the curcumin-induced ROS production and rescued malignant cells from curcumin-induced apoptosis through caspase-3 deactivation. However, L-buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), a GSH synthesis blocking agent, further enhanced curcumin-induced ROS production and apoptosis in A549 cells. Decreased GSH/GSSG ratio seems to be a crucial factor for the activation of MAPK signaling cascade by curcumin. The study therefore, provides an insight into the molecular mechanism involved in sensitization of lung adenocarcinoma cells to apoptosis by curcumin. Curcumin has many pharmaceutical applications, many of which arise from its potent antioxidant properties. The present research examined the antioxidant activiti

Pharmacodynamics

Intravenous application of 25 mg/kg bw curcumin to rats resulted in an increase in bile flow by 80 and 120%. In the rat model of inflammation, curcumin was shown to inhibit edema formation. In nude mouse that had been injected subcutaneously with prostate cancer cells, administration of curcumin caused a marked decrease in the extent of cell proliferation, a significant increase of apoptosis and micro-vessel density. Curcumin may exert choleretic effects by increasing biliary excretion of bile salts, cholesterol, and bilirubin, as well as increasing bile solubility. Curcumin inhibited arachidonic acid-induced platelet aggregation _in vitro_.